Racial segregation - Wikipedia

Segregation is defined by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance as "the act by which a (natural or legal) person separates other persons on the ... Racialsegregation FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Systemicseparationofpeopleintoracialorotherethnicgroupsindailylife "Colorbar"and"Segregationist"redirecthere.FortheTVtestpattern,seeSMPTEcolorbars.Fortheshortstory,seeSegregationist(shortstory). African-Americanmandrinkingfroma"Colored"watercoolerinstreetcarterminal,OklahomaCity,July1939. 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Racialsegregationisthesystematicseparationofpeopleintoracialorotherethnicgroupsindailylife.RacialsegregationcanamounttotheinternationalcrimeofapartheidandacrimeagainsthumanityundertheStatuteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt.Segregationcaninvolvethespatialseparationoftheraces,andmandatoryuseofdifferentinstitutions,suchasschoolsandhospitalsbypeopleofdifferentraces.Specifically,itmaybeappliedtoactivitiessuchaseatinginrestaurants,drinkingfromwaterfountains,usingpublictoilets,attendingschools,goingtomovies,ridingbuses,rentingorpurchasinghomesorrentinghotelrooms.[1]Inaddition,segregationoftenallowsclosecontactbetweenmembersofdifferentracialorethnicgroupsinhierarchicalsituations,suchasallowingapersonofoneracetoworkasaservantforamemberofanotherrace. SegregationisdefinedbytheEuropeanCommissionagainstRacismandIntoleranceas"theactbywhicha(naturalorlegal)personseparatesotherpersonsonthebasisofoneoftheenumeratedgroundswithoutanobjectiveandreasonablejustification,inconformitywiththeproposeddefinitionofdiscrimination.Asaresult,thevoluntaryactofseparatingoneselffromotherpeopleonthebasisofoneoftheenumeratedgroundsdoesnotconstitutesegregation".[2]AccordingtotheUNForumonMinorityIssues,"Thecreationanddevelopmentofclassesandschoolsprovidingeducationinminoritylanguagesshouldnotbeconsideredimpermissiblesegregationiftheassignmenttosuchclassesandschoolsisofavoluntarynature."[3] Racialsegregationhasgenerallybeenoutlawedworldwide.IntheUnitedStates,racialsegregationwasmandatedbylawinsomestates(seeJimCrowlaws)andenforcedalongwithanti-miscegenationlaws(prohibitionsagainstinterracialmarriage),untiltheU.S.SupremeCourtledbyChiefJusticeEarlWarrenstruckdownracialsegregationistlawsthroughouttheUnitedStates.[4][5][6][7][8]However,racialsegregationmayexistdefactothroughsocialnorms,evenwhenthereisnostrongindividualpreferenceforit,assuggestedbyThomasSchelling'smodelsofsegregationandsubsequentwork.[9]Segregationmaybemaintainedbymeansrangingfromdiscriminationinhiringandintherentalandsaleofhousingtocertainracestovigilanteviolence(suchaslynchings).Generally,asituationthatariseswhenmembersofdifferentracesmutuallyprefertoassociateanddobusinesswithmembersoftheirownracewouldusuallybedescribedasseparationordefactoseparationoftheracesratherthansegregation. Contents 1Historiccasesfromancienttimestothe1960s 1.1ImperialChina 1.1.1Tangdynasty 1.1.2Qingdynasty 1.2Colonialsocieties 1.2.1BelgianCongo 1.2.2FrenchAlgeria 1.2.3Rhodesia 1.3Religiousandracialantisemitism 1.3.1FascistItaly 1.3.2NaziGermany 1.4Othercases 1.4.1Canada 1.4.2Germany 1.4.3SouthAfrica 1.4.4UnitedStates 2Historiccases(1970stopresent) 2.1Bahrain 2.2Canada 2.3Fiji 2.4Israel 2.5Kenya 2.6Liberia 2.7Malaysia 2.8Mauritania 2.9UnitedKingdom 2.10UnitedStates 2.11Yemen 3Seealso 4Notes 5References 6Furtherreading 7Externallinks Historiccasesfromancienttimestothe1960s[edit] Wherevermultiracialcommunitieshaveexisted,racialsegregationhasalsobeenpracticed.Onlyareaswithextensiveinterracialmarriage,suchasHawaiiandBrazil,seemtobeexemptfromit,despitesomesocialstratificationwithinthem.[10] ImperialChina[edit] Tangdynasty[edit] SeverallawswhichenforcedracialsegregationofforeignersfromChinesewerepassedbytheHanChineseduringtheTangdynasty.[citationneeded]In779theTangdynastyissuedanedictwhichforcedUyghurstoweartheirethnicdress,stoppedthemfrommarryingChinesefemales,andbannedthemfrompretendingtobeChinese.[11]In836,whenLuChunwasappointedasgovernorofCanton,hewasdisgustedtofindChineselivingwithforeignersandintermarriagebetweenChineseandforeigners.Luenforcedseparation,banninginterracialmarriages,andmadeitillegalforforeignerstoownproperty.LuChunbelievedhisprincipleswerejustandupright.[11]The836lawspecificallybannedChinesefromformingrelationshipswith"Darkpeoples"or"Peopleofcolour",whichwasusedtodescribeforeigners,suchas"Iranians,Sogdians,Arabs,Indians,Malays,Sumatrans",amongothers.[12][13] Qingdynasty[edit] Mainarticle:EightBanners TheQingdynastywasfoundednotbyHanChinese,whoformthemajorityoftheChinesepopulation,butbyManchus,whoaretodayanethnicminorityofChina.TheManchuswerekeenlyawareoftheirminoritystatus,however,itwasonlylaterinthedynastythattheybannedintermarriage. HandefectorsplayedamassiveroleintheQingconquestofChina.HanChineseGeneralsoftheMingDynastywhodefectedtotheManchuwereoftengivenwomenfromtheImperialAisinGiorofamilyinmarriagewhiletheordinarysoldierswhodefectedweregivennon-royalManchuwomenaswives.TheManchuleaderNurhacimarriedoneofhisgranddaughterstotheMingGeneralLiYongfangafterhesurrenderedFushuninLiaoningtotheManchuin1618.[14][15]Jurchen(Manchu)womenmarriedmostoftheHanChinesedefectorsinLiaodong.[16]AisinGiorowomenweremarriedtothesonsoftheHanChineseGeneralsSunSike(SunSsu-k'o),GengJimao(KengChi-mao),ShangKexi(ShangK'o-hsi),andWuSangui(WuSan-kuei).[17] AmassmarriageofHanChineseofficersandofficialstoManchuwomennumbering1,000coupleswasarrangedbyPrinceYotoandHongtaijiin1632topromoteharmonybetweenthetwoethnicgroups.[14] GengZhongming,aHanbannerman,wasawardedthetitleofPrinceJingnan,andhissonGengJingmaomanagedtohavebothhissonsGengJingzhongandGengZhaozhongbecomecourtattendantsunderShunzhiandmarryAisinGiorowomen,withHaoge's(asonofHongTaiji)daughtermarryingGengJingzhongandPrinceAbatai's(HongTaiji)granddaughtermarryingGengZhaozhong.[18] TheQingdifferentiatedbetweenHanBannermenandordinaryHancivilians.HanBannermenweremadeoutofHanChinesewhodefectedtotheQingupto1644andjoinedtheEightBanners,givingthemsocialandlegalprivilegesinadditiontobeingacculturatedtoManchuculture.SomanyHandefectedtotheQingandswelledtheranksoftheEightBannersthatethnicManchusbecameaminoritywithintheBanners,makinguponly16%in1648,withHanBannermendominatingat75%.[19][20][21]Itwasthismulti-ethnicforceinwhichManchuswereonlyaminority,whichconqueredChinafortheQing.[22] ItwasHanChineseBannermenwhowereresponsibleforthesuccessfulQingconquestofChina,theymadeupthemajorityofgovernorsintheearlyQingandweretheoneswhogovernedandadministeredChinaaftertheconquest,stabilizingQingrule.[23]HanBannermendominatedthepostofgovernor-generalinthetimeoftheShunzhiandKangxiEmperors,andalsothepostofgovernors,largelyexcludingordinaryHanciviliansfromtheposts.[24] Topromoteethnicharmony,a1648decreefromtheManchuShunzhiEmperorallowedHanChinesecivilianmentomarryManchuwomenfromtheBannerswiththepermissionoftheBoardofRevenueiftheywereregistereddaughtersofofficialsorcommonersorthepermissionoftheirbannercompanycaptainiftheywereunregisteredcommoners,itwasonlylaterinthedynastythatthesepoliciesallowingintermarriageweredoneawaywith.[25][26] TheQingimplementedapolicyofsegregationbetweentheBannermenoftheEightBanners(ManchuBannermen,MongolBannermen,HanBannermen)andHanChinesecivilians[when?].Thisethnicsegregationhadculturalandeconomicreasons:intermarriagewasforbiddentokeepuptheManchuheritageandminimizesinicization.HanChineseciviliansandMongolcivilianswerebannedfromsettlinginManchuria.[27]HanciviliansandMongolcivilianswerebannedfromcrossingintoeachother'slands.OrdinaryMongolciviliansinInnerMongoliawerebannedfromevencrossingintootherMongolBanners.(AbannerinInnerMongoliawasanadministrativedivisionandnotrelatedtotheMongolBannermenintheEightBanners) TheserestrictionsdidnotapplyHanBannermen,whoweresettledinManchuriabytheQing.HanbannermenweredifferentiatedfromHanciviliansbytheQingandtreateddifferently. TheQingDynastystartedcolonizingManchuriawithHanChineselateroninthedynasty'srule,buttheManchuareawasstillseparatedfrommodern-dayInnerMongoliabytheOuterWillowPalisade,whichkepttheManchuandtheMongolsintheareaseparate. Thepolicyofsegregationapplieddirectlytothebannergarrisons,mostofwhichoccupiedaseparatewalledzonewithinthecitiesinwhichtheywerestationed.ManchuBannermen,HanBannermen,andMongolBannermenwereseparatedfromtheHancivilianpopulation.WhiletheManchusfollowedthegovernmentalstructureoftheprecedingMingdynasty,theirethnicpolicydictatedthatappointmentsweresplitbetweenManchunoblemenandHanChinesecivilianofficialswhohadpassedthehighestlevelsofthestateexaminations,andbecauseofthesmallnumberofManchus,thisinsuredthatalargefractionofthemwouldbegovernmentofficials. Colonialsocieties[edit] BelgianCongo[edit] Mainarticle:BelgianCongo§ Socialinequalityandracialdiscrimination ThoughtherewerenospecificlawsimposingracialsegregationandbarringBlackpeoplefromestablishmentsfrequentedbyWhites,defactosegregationoperatedinmostareas.Forexample,initially,thecitycentreswerereservedtotheWhitepopulationonly,whiletheBlackpopulationwasorganisedincitésindigènes(indigenousneighbourhoodscalled'lebelge').Hospitals,departmentstores,andotherfacilitieswereoftenreservedforeitherWhitesorBlacks. TheBlackpopulationinthecitiescouldnotleavetheirhousesfrom2100to0400.Thistypeofsegregationbegantodisappeargraduallyonlyinthe1950s,buteventhentheCongoleseremainedorfelttreatedinmanyrespectsassecond-ratecitizens(forinstanceinpoliticalandlegalterms). From1952,andevenmoresoafterthetriumphantvisitofKingBaudouintothecolonyin1955,Governor-GeneralLéonPétillon(1952–1958)workedtocreatea"Belgian-Congolesecommunity",inwhichBlackandWhitepeopleweretobetreatedasequals.[28]Regardless,anti-miscegenationlawsremainedinplace,andbetween1959and1962thousandsofmixed-raceCongolesechildrenwereforciblydeportedfromtheCongobytheBelgiangovernmentandtheCatholicChurchandtakentoBelgium.[29] FrenchAlgeria[edit] Mainarticle:FrenchAlgeria§ Discrimination Seealso:IndigénatandAssimilation(Frenchcolonialism) FollowingitsconquestofOttomancontrolledAlgeriain1830,forwelloveracentury,Francemaintainedcolonialruleintheterritorywhichhasbeendescribedas"quasi-apartheid".[30]Thecoloniallawof1865allowedArabandBerberAlgerianstoapplyforFrenchcitizenshiponlyiftheyabandonedtheirMuslimidentity;AzzedineHaddourarguesthatthisestablished"theformalstructuresofapoliticalapartheid".[31]CamilleBonora-Waismanwritesthat"incontrastwiththeMoroccanandTunisianprotectorates",this"colonialapartheidsociety"wasuniquetoAlgeria.[32] This"internalsystemofapartheid"metwithconsiderableresistancefromtheMuslimsaffectedbyit,andiscitedasoneofthecausesofthe1954insurrectionandensuingindependencewar.[33] Rhodesia[edit] Furtherinformation:SouthRhodesiaLandApportionmentAct LandapportionmentinRhodesiain1965 TheLandApportionmentActof1930passedinSouthernRhodesia(nowknownasZimbabwe)wasasegregationistmeasurethatgovernedlandallocationandacquisitioninruralareas,makingdistinctionsbetweenBlacksandWhites.[34] Onehighlypublicisedlegalbattleoccurredin1960involvingtheopeningofanewtheatrethatwastobeopentoallraces;theproposedunsegregatedpublictoiletsatthenewlybuiltRepsTheatrein1959causedanargumentcalled"TheBattleoftheToilets". Religiousandracialantisemitism[edit] Mainarticles:Religiousantisemitism,AntisemitisminChristianity,JewishghettosinEurope,AntisemitisminIslam,Mellah,andRacialantisemitism JewsinEuropeweregenerallyforced,bydecreeorinformalpressure,toliveinhighlysegregatedghettosandshtetls.[35]In1204thepapacyrequiredJewstosegregatethemselvesfromChristiansandweardistinctiveclothing.[36]ForcedsegregationofJewsspreadthroughoutEuropeduringthe14thand15thcenturies.[37]IntheRussianEmpire,Jewswererestrictedtotheso-calledPaleofSettlement,theWesternfrontieroftheRussianEmpirewhichroughlycorrespondstothemodern-daycountriesofPoland,Lithuania,Belarus,MoldovaandUkraine.[38]Bytheearly20thcentury,themajorityofEurope'sJewslivedinthePaleofSettlement. Fromthebeginningofthe15thcentury,JewishpopulationsinMoroccowereconfinedtomellahs.Incities,amellahwassurroundedbyawallwithafortifiedgateway.Incontrast,ruralmellahswereseparatevillageswhosesoleinhabitantswereJews.[39] Inthemiddleofthe19thcentury,J.J.BenjaminwroteaboutthelivesofPersianJews: …theyareobligedtoliveinaseparatepartoftown…;fortheyareconsideredasuncleancreatures…Underthepretextoftheirbeingunclean,theyaretreatedwiththegreatestseverity,andshouldtheyenterastreet,inhabitedbyMussulmans,theyarepeltedbytheboysandmobswithstonesanddirt…Forthesamereason,theyareprohibitedtogooutwhenitrains;foritissaidtherainwouldwashdirtoffthem,whichwouldsullythefeetoftheMussulmans…IfaJewisrecognizedassuchinthestreets,heissubjectedtothegreatestinsults.Thepassers-byspitinhisface,andsometimesbeathim…unmercifully…IfaJewentersashopforanything,heisforbiddentoinspectthegoods…Shouldhishandincautiouslytouchthegoods,hemusttakethematanypricethesellerchoosestoaskforthem...SometimesthePersiansintrudeintothedwellingsoftheJewsandtakepossessionofwhateverpleasethem.Shouldtheownermaketheleastoppositionindefenseofhisproperty,heincursthedangerofatoningforitwithhislife...If...aJewshowshimselfinthestreetduringthethreedaysoftheKatel(Muharram)…,heissuretobemurdered.[40] On16May1940inNorway,theAdministrasjonsrådetaskedtheRikskommisariatetwhyradioreceivershadbeenconfiscatedfromJewsinNorway.[41]ThatAdministrasjonsrådetthereafter"quietly"accepted[41]racialsegregationbetweenNorwegiancitizens,hasbeenclaimedbyTorBomann-Larsen.Furthermore,heclaimedthatthissegregation"createdaprecedent.2yearslater(withNS-styretintheministriesofNorway)NorwegianpolicearrestedcitizensattheaddresseswhereradioshadpreviouslybeenconfiscatedfromJews.[41] FascistItaly[edit] Mainarticle:ItalianFascismandracism In1938,thefascistregimewhichwasledbyBenitoMussolini,underpressurefromtheNazis,introducedaseriesofraciallawswhichinstitutedanofficialsegregationistpolicyintheItalianEmpire,whichwasespeciallydirectedagainstItalianJews.Thispolicyenforcedvarioussegregationistnorms,likethelawswhichbannedJewsfromteachingorstudyinginordinaryschoolsanduniversities,owningindustriesthatwerereputedtobeveryimportanttothenation,workingasjournalists,enteringthemilitary,andmarryingnon-Jews. Someoftheimmediateconsequencesoftheintroductionofthe'provvedimentiperladifesadellarazza'(normsforthedefenceoftherace)includedmanyofthebestItalianscientistsleavingtheirjobs,orevenleavingItaly.Amongsttheseweretheworld-renownedphysicistsEmilioSegrè,EnricoFermi(whosewifewasJewish),BrunoPontecorvo,BrunoRossi,TullioLevi-Civita,mathematiciansFederigoEnriquesandGuidoFubiniandeventhefascistpropagandadirector,artcriticandjournalistMargheritaSarfatti,whowasoneofMussolini'smistresses.RitaLevi-Montalcini,whowouldsuccessivelywintheNobelPrizeforMedicine,wasforbiddentoworkattheuniversity.AlbertEinstein,uponpassageoftheraciallaw,resignedfromhishonorarymembershipintheAccademiadeiLincei. After1943,whenNorthernItalywasoccupiedbytheNazis,ItalianJewswereroundedupandbecamevictimsoftheHolocaust. NaziGermany[edit] Mainarticles:NazismandraceandRacialpolicyofNaziGermany Seealso:NurfürDeutsche "NurfürdeutscheFahrgäste"("OnlyforGermanpassengers")onthetramnumber8inGerman-occupiedKraków,Poland. GermanpraiseforAmerica'ssystemofinstitutionalracism,whichwaspreviouslyfoundinAdolfHitler'sMeinKampf,wascontinuousthroughouttheearly1930s.[42]TheU.S.wasthegloballeaderincodifiedracism,anditsracelawsfascinatedtheGermans.[42]TheNationalSocialistHandbookforLawandLegislationof1934–35,editedbyHitler'slawyerHansFrank,containsapivotalessaybyHerbertKierontherecommendationsforracelegislationwhichdevotedaquarterofitspagestoU.S.legislation—fromsegregation,racebasedcitizenship,immigrationregulations,andanti-miscegenation.[42]ThisdirectlyinspiredthetwoprincipalNurembergLaws—theCitizenshipLawandtheBloodLaw.[42]Thebanoninterracialmarriage(anti-miscegenation)prohibitedsexualrelationsandmarriagesbetweenpeopleclassifiedas"Aryan"and"non-Aryan".SuchrelationshipswerecalledRassenschande(racedefilement).AtfirstthelawswereaimedprimarilyatJewsbutwerelaterextendedto"Gypsies,Negroes".[43][44][45]AryansfoundguiltycouldfaceincarcerationinaNaziconcentrationcamp,whilenon-Aryanscouldfacethedeathpenalty.[46]Topreservetheso-calledpurityoftheGermanblood,afterthewarbegan,theNazisextendedtheracedefilementlawtoincludeallforeigners(non-Germans).[47] UndertheGeneralGovernmentofoccupiedPolandin1940,theNazisdividedthepopulationintodifferentgroups,eachwithdifferentrights,foodrations,allowedhousingstripsinthecities,publictransportation,etc.InanefforttosplitPolishidentitytheyattemptedtoestablishethnicdivisionsofKashubiansandGorals(Goralenvolk),basedonthesegroups'alleged"Germaniccomponent". Duringthe1930sand1940s,JewsinNazi-controlledstatesweremadetowearsomethingthatidentifiedthemasJewish,suchasayellowribbonorstarofDavid,andwere,alongwithRomas(Gypsies),discriminatedagainstbytheraciallaws.JewishdoctorswerenotallowedtotreatAryanpatientsnorwereJewishprofessorspermittedtoteachAryanpupils.Inaddition,Jewswerenotallowedtouseanypublictransportation,besidestheferry,andwereabletoshoponlyfrom3–5pminJewishstores.AfterKristallnacht("TheNightofBrokenGlass"),theJewswerefined1,000,000 ℛℳfordamagesdonebytheNazitroopsandSSmembers. WomenbehindthebarbedwirefenceoftheLwówGhettoinoccupiedPoland.Spring1942 Jews,Poles,andRomaweresubjectedtogenocideas"undesirable"racialgroupsintheHolocaust.TheNazisestablishedghettostoconfineJewsandsometimesRomasintotightlypackedareasofthecitiesofEasternEurope,turningthemintodefactoconcentrationcamps.TheWarsawGhettowasthelargestoftheseghettos,with400,000people.TheŁódźGhettowasthesecondlargest,holdingabout160,000.[48] Between1939and1945,atleast1.5millionPolishcitizensweretransportedtotheReichforforcedlabour(inall,about12millionforcedlaborerswereemployedintheGermanwareconomyinsideNaziGermany).[49][50]AlthoughNaziGermanyalsousedforcedlaborersfromWesternEurope,Poles,alongwithotherEasternEuropeansviewedasraciallyinferior,[51]weresubjecttodeeperdiscriminatorymeasures.Theywereforcedtowearayellowwithpurpleborderandletter"P"(forPolen/Polish)clothidentifyingtagsewntotheirclothing,subjectedtoacurfew,andbannedfrompublictransportation. Whilethetreatmentoffactoryworkersorfarmhandsoftenvarieddependingontheindividualemployer,Polishlaborers,asarule,werecompelledtoworklongerhoursforlowerwagesthanWesternEuropeans–inmanycities,theywereforcedtoliveinsegregatedbarracksbehindbarbedwire.SocialrelationswithGermansoutsideworkwereforbidden,andsexualrelations(Rassenschandeor"racialdefilement")werepunishablebydeath.[52] Othercases[edit] Canada[edit] IndigenouspeoplesofCanadaweretreatedinraciallysegregatedhospitalscalledIndianhospitalsorsegregatedwardsinregularhospitals.Medicalexperimentationalsooccurredatthesehospitals,frequentlywithoutconsent,suchasthetestingofBCGvaccineoninfants.[53]Treatmentatotherhospitalsprovidedabetterqualityofcareforpatientsas:Hundredsofnewhospitalsofferedsettlercommunitiesmodernhealthcare,andcreatedtremendousopportunitiesfornursesanddoctors.IndianHealthServiceshaddifficultyfindingmedicalprofessionalswillingtoworkforlowcivilservicewagesinitsovercrowdedandpoorlyequippedIndianhospitals.Inseveralcommunities,theIndianandlocalhospitalswereliterallysidebyside.Indianhospitalsreflectedandconstructedracialinequalitybymakingitseeminglynaturalthatmodernizedhospitalswouldbe“white”hospitals,andthatIndigenouspeopleweresomehowlessworthyofcare.UndertheexpandedpostwarIndianhospitalsystem,thecostofcarecontinuedtobehalfthatofsurroundingcommunityhospitals’rates,withdireconsequencesforIndigenouspatients.[53] Germany[edit] Infifteenth-centurynorth-eastGermany,peopleofWendish,i.e.Slavic,originwerenotallowedtojoinsomeguilds.[54]AccordingtoWilhelmRaabe,"downintotheeighteenthcenturynoGermanguildacceptedaWend."[55] SouthAfrica[edit] Mainarticle:Apartheid "Apartheid":signonDurbanbeachinEnglish,AfrikaansandZulu,1989 TheapartheidsystemcarriedoutbyAfrikanerminorityruleenactedanationwidesocialpolicy"separatedevelopment"withtheNationalPartyvictoryinthe1948generalelection,followingthe"colourbar"-discriminatorylegislationdatingbacktothebeginningoftheUnionofSouthAfricaandtheBoerrepublicsbeforewhich,whilerepressivetoBlackSouthAfricansalongwithotherminorities,hadnotgonenearlysofar. Apartheidlawscanbegenerallydividedintofollowingacts.Firstly,thePopulationRegistrationActin1950classifiedresidentsinSouthAfricaintofourracialgroups:"black","white","Coloured",and"Indian"andnotedtheirracialidentitiesontheiridentifications.Secondly,theGroupAreasActin1950assigneddifferentregionsaccordingtodifferentraces.Peoplewereforcedtoliveintheircorrespondingregionsandtheactionofpassingtheboundarieswithoutapermitwasmadeillegal,extendingpasslawsthathadalreadycurtailedblackmovement.Thirdly,undertheReservationofSeparateAmenitiesActin1953,amenitiesinpublicareas,likehospitals,universitiesandparks,werelabeledseparatelyaccordingtoparticularraces.Inaddition,theBantuEducationActin1953segregatednationaleducationinSouthAfricaaswell.Additionally,thegovernmentofthetimeenforcedthepasslaws,whichdeprivedBlackSouthAfricansoftheirrighttotravelfreelywithintheirowncountry.UnderthissystemBlackSouthAfricanswereseverelyrestrictedfromurbanareas,requiringauthorisationfromawhiteemployertoenter. Uprisingsandprotestsagainstapartheidappearedimmediatelywhenapartheidarose.Asearlyas1949,theYouthLeagueoftheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)advocatedtheendingofapartheidandsuggestedfightingagainstracialsegregationbyvariousmethods.Duringthefollowingdecades,hundredsofanti-apartheidactionsoccurred,includingthoseoftheBlackConsciousnessMovement,students'protests,laborstrikes,andchurchgroupactivismetc.In1991,theAbolitionofRaciallyBasedLandMeasuresActwaspassed,repealinglawsenforcingracialsegregation,includingtheGroupAreasAct.[56]In1994,NelsonMandelawoninthefirstmultiracialdemocraticelectioninSouthAfrica.HissuccessfulfilledtheendingofapartheidinSouthAfricanhistory. UnitedStates[edit] Mainarticle:RacialsegregationintheUnitedStates Furtherinformation:RacismintheUnitedStates,ReconstructionEra,GildedAge,JimCrowEra,ProgressiveEra,1920sintheUnitedStates,1930sintheUnitedStates,1940sintheUnitedStates,1950sintheUnitedStates,1960sintheUnitedStates,and1970sintheUnitedStates AfterthepassageofJimCrowlawswhichsegregatedAfricanAmericansandWhites,thepeoplewhowerenegativelyaffectedbythoselawssawnoprogressintheirquestforequality.[57]Racialsegregationwasnotanewphenomenon,asillustratedbythefactthatalmostfourmillionBlackshadbeenenslavedbeforetheCivilWar.[58][59]ThelawspassedsegregatedAfricanAmericansfromWhitesinordertoenforceasystemofwhitesupremacy.SignswereusedtoshownonWhiteswheretheycouldlegallywalk,talk,drink,rest,oreat.[59]Forthoseplacesthatwereraciallymixed,BlackshadtowaituntilallWhitecustomersweredealtwith.[59]RuleswerealsoenforcedthatrestrictedAfricanAmericansfromenteringwhitestores.[59]Segregatedfacilitiesextendedfromwhiteonlyschoolstowhite-onlygraveyards.[60] AftertheThirteenthAmendmentabolishedslaveryinAmerica,racialdiscriminationbecameregulatedbytheso-calledJimCrowlaws,whichmandatedstrictsegregationoftheraces.Thoughmanysuchlawswereinstitutedshortlyafterfightingended,theyonlybecameformalizedafterthe1877endoftheReconstructionperiod.TheperiodthatfollowedisknownasthenadirofAmericanracerelations.Thelegislation(orinsomestates,suchasFlorida,thestateconstitutions)thatmandatedsegregationlastedatleastuntila1968rulingbytheU.S.SupremeCourtoutlawingallformsofsegregation. ColoredSailorsroominWorldWarI WhiletheU.S.SupremeCourtmajorityinthe1896Plessyv.Fergusoncaseexplicitlypermitted"separatebutequal"facilities(specifically,transportationfacilities),JusticeJohnMarshallHarlan,inhisdissent,protestedthatthedecisionwasanexpressionofwhitesupremacy;hepredictedthatsegregationwould"stimulateaggressions...upontheadmittedrightsofcoloredcitizens","arouseracehate",and"perpetuateafeelingofdistrustbetween[the]races.FeelingsbetweenWhitesandBlacksweresotense,eventhejailsweresegregated."[61] Electedin1912,PresidentWoodrowWilsontoleratedtheextensionofsegregationthroughoutthefederalgovernmentthatwasalreadyunderway.[62]InWorldWarI,BlacksweredraftedandservedintheUnitedStatesArmyinsegregatedunits.Blackcombatsoldierswereoftenpoorlytrainedandequipped,andnewdrafteeswereputonthefrontlinesindangerousmissions.[63]TheU.S.militarywasstillheavilysegregatedinWorldWarII.TheairforceandthemarineshadnoBlacksenlistedintheirranks.TherewereBlacksintheNavySeabees.ThearmyhadonlyfiveAfrican-Americanofficers.[64]Inaddition,noAfrican-AmericanwouldreceivetheMedalofHonorduringthewar,andtheirtasksinthewarwerelargelyreservedtononcombatunits.BlacksoldiershadtosometimesgiveuptheirseatsintrainstotheNaziprisonersofwar.[64] "WeCatertoWhiteTradeOnly"signonarestaurantwindowinLancaster,Ohio,in1938.In1964MartinLutherKingJr.wasarrestedandspentanightinjailforattemptingtoeatatawhite-onlyrestaurantinSt.Augustine,Florida AclubcentraltotheHarlemRenaissanceinthe1920s,theCottonClubinHarlem,NewYorkCitywasawhites-onlyestablishment,withBlacks(suchasDukeEllington)allowedtoperform,buttoawhiteaudience.[65]Inthereceptiontohonorhissuccessatthe1936SummerOlympics,JesseOwenswasnotpermittedtoenterthroughthemaindoorsoftheWaldorfAstoriaNewYorkandinsteadforcedtotraveluptotheeventinafreightelevator.[66]ThefirstblackAcademyAwardrecipientHattieMcDanielwasnotpermittedtoattendthepremiereofGonewiththeWindatLoew'sGrandTheatre,Atlanta,becauseofGeorgia'ssegregationlaws,andatthe12thAcademyAwardsceremonyattheAmbassadorHotelinLosAngelesshewasrequiredtositatasegregatedtableatthefarwalloftheroom;thehotelhadano-blackspolicy,butallowedMcDanielinasafavor.[67]HerfinalwishtobeburiedinHollywoodCemeterywasdeniedbecausethegraveyardwasrestrictedtoWhitesonly.[67] On11September1964,JohnLennonannouncedTheBeatleswouldnotplaytoasegregatedaudienceinJacksonville,Florida.[68]Cityofficialsrelentedfollowingthisannouncement.[68]Acontractfora1965BeatlesconcertattheCowPalaceinCaliforniaspecifiesthattheband"notberequiredtoperforminfrontofasegregatedaudience".[68] Americansportswereraciallysegregateduntilthemid-twentiethcentury.Inbaseball,the"Negroleagues"wereestablishedbyRubeFosterfornon-whiteplayers,suchasNegroleaguebaseball,whichranthroughtheearly1950s.[69]Inbasketball,theBlackFives(all-blackteams)wereestablishedin1904,andemergedinNewYorkCity,Washington,D.C.,Chicago,Pittsburgh,Philadelphia,andothercities.Racialsegregationinbasketballlasteduntil1950whentheNBAbecameraciallyintegrated.[70] WhitetenantsseekingtopreventBlacksfrommovingintothehousingprojecterectedthissign.Detroit,1942 ManyU.S.statesbannedinterracialmarriage.WhileopposedtoslaveryintheU.S,inaspeechinCharleston,Illinois,in1858,AbrahamLincolnstated,"Iamnot,noreverhavebeeninfavorofbringingaboutinanywaythesocialandpoliticalequalityofthewhiteandblackraces,thatIamnot,noreverhavebeeninfavorofmakingvotersorjurorsofnegroes,norofqualifyingthemtoholdoffice,nortointermarrywithwhitepeople.Iasmuchasanymanaminfavorofthesuperiorpositionassignedtothewhiterace".[71]In1967,MildredLoving,ablackwoman,andRichardLoving,awhiteman,weresentencedtoayearinprisoninVirginiaformarryingeachother.[72]Theirmarriageviolatedthestate'santi-miscegenationstatute,theRacialIntegrityActof1924,whichprohibitedmarriagebetweenpeopleclassifiedaswhiteandpeopleclassifiedas"colored"(personsofnon-whiteancestry).[73] IntheLovingv.Virginiacasein1967,theSupremeCourtinvalidatedlawsprohibitinginterracialmarriageintheU.S.[74] RosaParksbeingfingerprintedafterbeingarrestedfornotgivingupherseatonthebustoawhiteperson. InstitutionalizedracialsegregationwasendedasanofficialpracticeduringthecivilrightsmovementbytheeffortsofsuchcivilrightsactivistsasClarenceM.MitchellJr.,RosaParks,MartinLutherKingJr.andJamesFarmerworkingforsocialandpoliticalfreedomduringtheperiodfromtheendofWorldWarIIthroughtheInterstateCommerceCommissiondesegregationorderof1961,thepassageoftheCivilRightsActin1964andtheVotingRightsActin1965supportedbyPresidentLyndonB.Johnson.Manyoftheireffortswereactsofnon-violentcivildisobedienceaimedatdisruptingtheenforcementofracialsegregationrulesandlaws,suchasrefusingtogiveupaseatintheblackpartofthebustoawhiteperson(RosaParks),orholdingsit-insatall-whitediners. By1968,allformsofsegregationhadbeendeclaredunconstitutionalbytheSupremeCourtunderChiefJusticeEarlWarren,andby1970supportforformallegalsegregationhaddissolved.[75][76]TheWarrenCourt'sdecisiononlandmarkcaseBrownv.BoardofEducationofTopeka,Kansasin1954outlawedsegregationinpublicschools,anditsdecisiononHeartofAtlantaMotel,Inc.v.UnitedStatesin1964prohibitsracialsegregationanddiscriminationinpublicinstitutionsandpublicaccommodations.[77][78][79]TheFairHousingActof1968,administeredandenforcedbytheOfficeofFairHousingandEqualOpportunity,prohibiteddiscriminationinthesaleandrentalofhousingonthebasisofrace,color,nationalorigin,religion,sex,familialstatus,anddisability.Formalracialdiscriminationbecameillegalinschoolsystems,businesses,theAmericanmilitary,othercivilservicesandthegovernment.However,implicitracismcontinuestothisdaythroughavenueslikeoccupationalsegregation.[80]Inrecentyears,therehasbeenatrendthatreversesthoseeffortstodesegregateschoolsmadebythosemandatoryschooldesegregationorders.[81] Historiccases(1970stopresent)[edit] Bahrain[edit] Seealso:HumanrightsinBahrainandBandargatescandal On28April2007,thelowerhouseofBahrainiParliamentpassedalawbanningunmarriedmigrantworkersfromlivinginresidentialareas.Tojustifythelaw,NasserFadhala,MP,acloseallyofthegovernment,said"bachelorsalsousethesehousestomakealcohol,runprostituteringsortorapechildrenandhousemaids".[82] SadiqRahma,technicalcommitteehead,whoisamemberofAlWefaq,said:"TheruleswearedrawinguparedesignedtoprotecttherightsofboththefamiliesandtheAsianbachelors(..)theselabourersoftenhavehabitswhicharedifficultforfamilieslivingnearbytotolerate(..)theycomeoutoftheirhomeshalfdressed,brewalcoholillegallyintheirhomes,useprostitutesandmaketheneighbourhooddirty(..)thesearepoorpeoplewhooftenliveingroupsof50ormore,crammedintoonehouseorapartment,"saidMrRahma."Therulesalsostatethattheremustbeatleastonebathroomforeveryfivepeople(..)therehavealsobeencasesinwhichyoungchildrenhavebeensexuallymolested."[83] BahrainCentreforHumanRightsissuedapressreleasecondemningthisdecisionasdiscriminatoryandpromotingnegativeracistattitudestowardsmigrantworkers.[82][84]NabeelRajab,thenBCHRvicepresident,said:"ItisappallingthatBahrainiswillingtorestonthebenefitsofthesepeople'shardwork,andoftentheirsuffering,butthattheyrefusetolivewiththeminequalityanddignity.Thesolutionisnottoforcemigrantworkersintoghettos,buttourgecompaniestoimprovelivingconditionsforworkers–andnottoaccommodatelargenumbersofworkersininadequatespace,andtoimprovethestandardoflivingforthem."[82][84] Canada[edit] Until1965,racialsegregationinschools,storesandmostaspectsofpubliclifeexistedlegallyinOntario,QuebecandNovaScotia,andinformallyinotherprovincessuchasBritishColumbia.[85] Sincethe1970s,therehasbeenaconcernexpressedbysomeacademicsthatmajorCanadiancitiesarebecomingmoresegregatedonincomeandethniclines.Reportshaveindicatedthattheinnersuburbsofpost-mergerToronto[86]andthesouthernbedroomcommunitiesofGreaterVancouver[86]havebecomesteadilymoreimmigrantandvisibleminoritydominatedcommunitiesandhavelaggedbehindotherneighbourhoodsinaverageincome.ACBCpanelinVancouverin2012discussedthegrowingpublicfearthattheproliferationofethnicenclavesinGreaterVancouver(suchasHanChineseinRichmondandPunjabisinSurrey)amountedtoatypeofself-segregation.Inresponsetothesefears,manyminorityactivistshavepointedoutthatmostCanadianneighbourhoodsremainpredominatelyWhite,andyetwhitepeopleareneveraccusedof"self-segregation". TheMohawktribeofKahnawakehasbeencriticizedforevictingnon-MohawksfromtheMohawkreserve.[87]Mohawkswhomarryoutsideoftheirtribalnationlosetheirrighttoliveintheirhomelands.[88][89]TheMohawkgovernmentclaimsthatitspolicyofnationallyexclusivemembershipisforthepreservationofitsidentity,[90]butthereisnoexemptionforthosewhoadoptMohawklanguageorculture.[88]Thepolicyisbasedona1981moratoriumwhichwasmadelawin1984.[91]Allinterracialcouplesaresentevictionnoticesregardlessofhowlongtheyhavelivedonthereserve.[89]Theonlyexemptionisformixednationalcouplesmarriedbeforethe1981moratorium. AlthoughsomeconcernedMohawkcitizenscontestedthenationallyexclusivemembershippolicy,theCanadianHumanRightsTribunalruledthattheMohawkgovernmentmayadoptpoliciesitdeemsnecessarytoensurethesurvivalofitspeople.[90] Along-standingpracticeofnationalsegregationhasalsobeenimposeduponthecommercialsalmonfisheryinBritishColumbiasince1992whenseparatecommercialfisherieswerecreatedforselectaboriginalgroupsonthreeB.C.riversystems.Canadiansofothernationswhofishintheseparatefisherieshavebeenarrested,jailedandprosecuted.AlthoughthefishermenwhowereprosecutedweresuccessfulattrialinRvKapp,[92]thisdecisionwasoverturnedonappeal.[93] Fiji[edit] TwomilitarycoupsinFijiin1987removedademocraticallyelectedgovernmentledbyIndo-Fijians.[94]ThiscoupwassupportedprincipallybytheethnicFijianpopulation. Anewconstitutionwaspromulgatedin1990,establishingFijiasarepublic,withtheofficesofPresident,PrimeMinister,two-thirdsoftheSenate,andaclearmajorityoftheHouseofRepresentativesreservedforethnicFijians;ethnicFijianownershipofthelandwasalsoentrenchedintheconstitution.[95]Mostoftheseprovisionswereendedwiththepromulgationofthe1997Constitution,althoughthePresident(and14ofthe32Senators)werestillselectedbytheall-indigenousGreatCouncilofChiefs.Thelastofthesedistinctionswereremovedbythe2013Constitution.[96] Fiji'scaseisasituationofdefactoracialsegregation,[97]asFijihasalongcomplexhistoryofmorethan3500yearsasadividedtribalnation,withunificationunder96yearsofBritishrulealsobringingotherracialgroups,particularlyimmigrantsfromtheIndiansubcontinent. Israel[edit] Seealso:RacisminIsrael AbarriergateatBil'in,WestBank,2006 IsraeliDeclarationofIndependenceproclaimsequalrightstoallcitizensregardlessofethnicity,denominationorrace.Israelhasasubstantiallistoflawsthatdemandracialequality(suchasprohibitionofdiscrimination,equalityinEmployment,libelbasedonraceorethnicity.[98][circularreference]).Thereishowever,inpractice,significantinstitutional,legal,andsocietaldiscriminationagainstthecountry'sArabcitizens.[99] In2010,theIsraeliSupremeCourtsentamessageagainstracialsegregationinacaseinvolvingtheSlonimHassidicsectoftheAshkenaziJews,rulingthatsegregationbetweenAshkenaziandSephardistudentsinaschoolisillegal.[100]Theyarguethattheyseek"tomaintainanequallevelofreligiosity,notfromracism".[101]Respondingtothecharges,theSlonimHarediminvitedSephardigirlstoschool,andaddedinastatement:"Allalong,wesaidit'snotaboutrace,buttheHighCourtwentoutagainstourrabbis,andthereforewewenttoprison."[102] Duetomanyculturaldifferences,andanimositytowardsaminorityperceivedtowishtoannihilateIsrael,asystemofpassivelyco-existingcommunities,segregatedalongethniclineshasemergedinIsrael,withArab-Israeliminoritycommunitiesbeingleft"maroonedoutsidethemainstream".ThisdefactosegregationalsoexistsbetweendifferentJewishethnicgroups("edot")suchasSepharadim,AshkenazimandBetaIsrael(JewsofEthiopiandescent),[103]whichleadstodefactosegregatedschools,housingandpublicpolicy.Thegovernmenthasembarkedonaprogramtoshutdownsuchschools,inordertoforceintegration,butsomeintheEthiopiancommunitycomplainedthatnotallsuchschoolshavebeenclosed.[104]Ina2007pollcommissionedbytheCenterAgainstRacismandconductedbytheGeoCartographiaInstitute,75%ofIsraeliJewswouldnotagreetoliveinabuildingwithArabresidents,60%wouldnotacceptanyArabvisitorsattheirhomes,40%believedthatArabsshouldbestrippedoftheirrighttovote,and59%believethatthecultureofArabsisprimitive.[105]In2012,apublicopinionpollshowedthat53%ofthepolledIsraeliJewssaidtheywouldnotobjecttoanArablivingintheirbuilding,while42%saidtheywould.AskedwhethertheywouldobjecttoArabchildrenbeingintheirchild'sclassinschool,49%saidtheywouldnot,42%saidtheywould.[106][107]ThesecularIsraelipublicwasfoundtobethemosttolerant,whilethereligiousandHaredirespondentswerethemostdiscriminatory. Kenya[edit] TheendofBritishcolonialruleinKenyain1964ledtoaninadvertentincreaseinethnicsegregation.Throughprivatepurchasesandgovernmentschemes,farmlandpreviouslyheldbyEuropeanfarmerswastransferredtoAfricanowners.Thesefarmswerefurthersub-dividedintosmallerlocalities,and,duetojointmigration,manyadjacentlocalitieswereoccupiedbymembersofdifferentethnicgroups.[108][pages needed]Thisseparationalongtheseboundariespersiststoday.KimuliKasara,inastudyofrecentethnicviolenceinthewakeofthedisputed2007-08Kenyanelections,usedthesepost-colonialboundariesasaninstrumentforthedegreeofethnicsegregation.[109][unreliablesource?]Througha2StageLeastSquaresRegressionanalysis,KasarashowedthatincreasedethnicsegregationinKenya'sRiftValleyProvinceisassociatedwithanincreaseinethnicviolence.[109] Liberia[edit] TheConstitutionofLiberialimitsLiberiannationalitytoNegropeople[110](seealsoLiberiannationalitylaw). WhileLebaneseandIndiannationalsareactiveintrading,aswellasintheretailandservicesectors,andEuropeansandAmericansworkintheminingandagriculturalsectors,theseminoritygroupswithlong-tenuredresidenceintheRepublicareprecludedfrombecomingcitizensasaresultoftheirrace.[111] Malaysia[edit] Mainarticles:BumiputraandKetuananMelayu MalaysiahasanarticleinitsconstitutionwhichdistinguishestheethnicMalaysiansandthenon-ethnicMalaysianpeople—i.e.bumiputra—fromthenon-BumiputrasuchasethnicChineseandIndiansunderthesocialcontract,ofwhichbylawwouldguaranteetheformercertainspecialrightsandprivileges.ToquestiontheserightsandprivilegeshoweverisstrictlyprohibitedundertheInternalSecurityAct,legalisedbythe10thArticle(IV)oftheConstitutionofMalaysia.[112]Theprivilegesmentionedhereincovers—fewofwhich—theeconomicalandeducationaspectsofMalaysians,e.g.theMalaysianNewEconomicPolicy;aneconomicpolicyrecentlycriticisedbyThierryRommel—whoheadedaEuropeanCommission'sdelegationtoMalaysia—asanexcusefor"significantprotectionism"[113][114]andaquotamaintaininghigheraccessofMalaysintopublicuniversities. Whilelegalracialsegregationindailylifeisnotpracticed,self-segregationdoesexist. Mauritania[edit] SlaveryinMauritaniawasfinallycriminalizedinAugust2007.[115]Itwasalreadyabolishedin1980,althoughitwasstillaffectingtheblackAfricans.Thenumberofslavesinthecountrywasnotknownexactly,butitwasestimatedtobeupto600,000men,womenandchildren,or20%ofthepopulation.[116][117] Forcenturies,theso-calledHaratinlowerclass,mostlypoorblackAfricanslivinginruralareas,havebeenconsiderednaturalslavesbywhiteMoorsofArab/Berberancestry.ManydescendantsoftheArabandBerbertribestodaystilladheretothesupremacistideologyoftheirancestors.Thisideologyhasledtooppression,discriminationandevenenslavementofothergroupsintheregionofSudanandWesternSahara.[118][119][120] UnitedKingdom[edit] Mainarticle:RacialsegregationintheUnitedKingdom AlthoughracialsegregationwasnevermadelegalintheUK,pubs,workplaces,shopsandothercommercialpremisesoperateda"colourbar"wherenon-whitecustomerswerebannedfromusingcertainroomsandfacilities.[121]Segregationalsooperatedinthe20thcenturyincertainprofessions,[122]inhousingandevenatBuckinghamPalace.[123]ThecolourbarinpubswasdeemedillegalbytheRaceRelationsAct1965butotherinstitutionssuchasmembers'clubscouldstillbarpeoplebecauseoftheirraceuntilafewyearslater. TheUnitedKingdomnowadayshasnolegallysanctionedsystemofracialsegregationandhasasubstantiallistoflawsthatdemandracialequality.[124]However,duetomanyculturaldifferencesbetweenthepre-existingsystemofpassivelyco-existingcommunities,segregationalongraciallineshasemergedinpartsoftheUnitedKingdom,withminoritycommunitiesbeingleft"maroonedoutsidethemainstream".[125] Theaffectedand'ghettoised'communitiesareoftenlargelyrepresentativeofPakistanis,IndiansandotherSub-Continentals,andhasbeenthoughttobethebasisofethnictensions,andadeteriorationofthestandardoflivingandlevelsofeducationandemploymentamongethnicminoritiesinpoorerareas.Thesefactorsareconsideredbysometohavebeenacauseofthe2001EnglishraceriotsinBradford,OldhamandHarehillsinnorthernEnglandwhichhavelargeAsiancommunities.[126][127] Theremaybesomeindicationthatsuchsegregation,particularlyinresidentialterms,seemstobetheresultoftheunilateral'steering'ofethnicgroupsintoparticularareasaswellasacultureofvendordiscriminationanddistrustofethnicminorityclientsbysomeestateagentsandotherpropertyprofessionals.[128]Thismaybeindicativeofamarketpreferenceamongstthemorewealthytoresideinareasoflessethnicmixture;lessethnicmixturebeingperceivedasincreasingthevalueanddesirabilityofaresidentialarea.Thisislikelyasothertheoriessuchas"ethnicselfsegregation"havesometimesbeenshowntobebaseless,andamajorityofethnicrespondentstoafewsurveysonthematterhavebeeninfavourofwidersocialandresidentialintegration.[127] UniversityofMichiganstudentsarrestedforprotestingsegregationinAnnArbor;April19,1960. UnitedStates[edit] Seealso:RacialsegregationintheUnitedStates§ Contemporary DefactosegregationintheUnitedStateshasincreasedsincethecivilrightsmovement,whileofficialsegregationhasbeenoutlawed.[129]TheSupremeCourtruledinMillikenv.Bradley(1974)thatdefactoracialsegregationwasacceptable,aslongasschoolswerenotactivelymakingpoliciesforracialexclusion;sincethen,schoolshavebeensegregatedduetomyriadindirectfactors.[129] Redliningispartofhowwhitecommunitiesmaintainedracistsegregation.Itisthepracticeofdenyingorincreasingthecostofservices,suchasmortgages,banking,insurance,accesstojobs,[130]accesstohealthcare,[131]orevensupermarkets[132]toresidentsincertain,oftenraciallydetermined,[133]areas.Themostdevastatingformofredlining,andthemostcommonuseoftheterm,refertomortgagediscrimination.Overthenexttwentyyears,asuccessionoffurthercourtdecisionsandfederallaws,includingtheHomeMortgageDisclosureActandmeasuretoendmortgagediscriminationin1975,wouldcompletelyinvalidatedejureracialsegregationanddiscriminationintheU.S.,althoughdefactosegregationanddiscriminationhaveprovenmoreresilient.AccordingtotheCivilRightsProjectatHarvardUniversity,theactualdefactodesegregationofU.S.publicschoolspeakedinthelate1980s;sincethattime,theschoolshave,infact,becomemoresegregatedmainlyduetotheethnicsegregationofthenationwithwhitesdominatingthesuburbsandminoritiestheurbancenters.AccordingtoRajivSethi,aneconomistatColumbiaUniversity,black-whitesegregationinhousingisslowlydecliningformostmetropolitanareasintheUS.[134]Racialsegregationorseparationcanleadtosocial,economicandpoliticaltensions.[135]Thirtyyears(theyear2000)afterthecivilrightsera,theUnitedStatesremainedinmanyareasaresidentiallysegregatedsociety,inwhichBlacks,whitesandHispanicsinhabitdifferentneighborhoodsofvastlydifferentquality.[136][137][138] DanImmergluckwritesthatin2002smallbusinessesinblackneighborhoodsstillreceivedfewerloans,evenafteraccountingforbusinessesdensity,businessessize,industrialmix,neighborhoodincome,andthecreditqualityoflocalbusinesses.[139]GregoryD.Squireswrotein2003thatitisclearthatracehaslongaffectedandcontinuestoaffectthepoliciesandpracticesoftheinsuranceindustry.[140]WorkerslivinginAmericaninnercitieshaveahardertimefindingjobsthansuburbanworkers.[141] Thedesireofmanywhitestoavoidhavingtheirchildrenattendintegratedschoolshasbeenafactorinwhiteflighttothesuburbs.[142]A2007studyinSanFranciscoshowedthatgroupsofhomeownersofallracestendedtoself-segregateinordertobewithpeopleofthesameeducationlevelandrace.[143]By1990,thelegalbarriersenforcingsegregationhadbeenmostlyreplacedbydecentralizedracism,wherewhitepeoplepaymorethanblackpeopletoliveinpredominantlywhiteareas.[144]Today,manywhitesarewillingtopayapremiumtoliveinapredominantlywhiteneighborhood.Equivalenthousinginwhiteareascommandsahigherrent.[145]Thesehigherrentsarelargelyattributabletoexclusionaryzoningpoliciesthatrestrictthesupplyofhousing.Regulationsensurethatallhousingunitsareexpensiveenoughtopreventaccessbyundesirablegroups.Bybiddingupthepriceofhousing,manywhiteneighborhoodseffectivelyshutoutblackpeople,becausetheymaybeunwilling,orunable,topaythepremiumtobuyentryintotheseexpensiveneighborhoods.Conversely,equivalenthousinginblackneighborhoodsisfarmoreaffordabletothosewhoareunableorunwillingtopayapremiumtoliveinwhiteneighborhoods.Throughthe1990s,residentialsegregationremainedatitsextremeandhasbeencalled"hypersegregation"bysomesociologistsor"AmericanApartheid".[146] InFebruary2005,theU.S.SupremeCourtruledinJohnsonv.California543U.S.499(2005)thattheCaliforniaDepartmentofCorrections'unwrittenpracticeofraciallysegregatingprisonersinitsprisonreceptioncenters—whichCaliforniaclaimedwasforinmatesafety(gangsinCalifornia,asthroughouttheU.S.,usuallyorganizeonraciallines)—istobesubjecttostrictscrutiny,thehighestlevelofconstitutionalreview.[147] Yemen[edit] Seealso:CastesinYemen InYemen,theArabelitepracticesaformofdiscriminationagainstthelowerclassAl-Akhdampeoplebasedontheirracialcharacteristics.[148] Seealso[edit] Amity-EnmityComplex Blackseparatism Caste Discrimination Discriminationbasedonskincolor In-groupandout-group Racialdiscrimination Whiteseparatism Notes[edit] ^Schill,Michael;Wachter,Susan(2001)."PrinciplestoGuideHousingPolicyattheBeginningoftheMillennium".Cityscape:5–19.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.536.5952. ^"ECRIGeneralPolicyRecommendationN°7:Nationallegislationtocombatracismandracialdiscrimination—Explanatorymemorandum,Para.16". ^"RecommendationsoftheForumonMinorityIssuesA/HRC/10/11/Add.1—para.27"(PDF). ^E.g.,VirginiaRacialIntegrityAct,VirginiaCode§20–58and§20–59 ^"TheCourt'sDecision–SeparateIsNotEqual".americanhistory.si.edu.Retrieved20October2019. ^"TheWarrenCourt:CompletionofaConstitutionalRevolution"(PDF).William&MaryLawSchoolScholarshipRepository.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on3October2019. ^"Brownv.BoardofEducationofTopeka".Oyez.Retrieved20October2019. ^"HeartofAtlantaMotel,Inc.v.UnitedStates".Oyez.Retrieved20October2019. ^Schelling,ThomasC.(1969).Modelsofsegregation(PDF).AmericanEconomicReview.Vol. 59.pp. 488–493.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on2January2016. ^"Racialsegregation".BritannicaOnlineEncyclopedia. ^abEdwardH.Schafer(1963).ThegoldenpeachesofSamarkand:astudyofTʻangexotics.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.p. 22.ISBN 978-0-520-05462-2.Retrieved28June2010. ^MarkEdwardLewis(2009).China'scosmopolitanempire:theTangdynasty.HarvardUniversityPress.p. 170.ISBN 978-0-674-03306-1.Retrieved28October2010. 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References[edit] Dobratz,BettyA.andShanks-Meile,StephanieL,WhitePower,WhitePride:TheWhiteSeparatistMovementintheUnitedStates,JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2001,384pages,ISBN 0-8018-6537-9. RuralFaceofWhiteSupremacy:BeyondJimCrow,byMarkSchultz.UniversityofIllinoisPress,2005,ISBN 0-252-02960-7. Yin,L.2009."TheDynamicsofResidentialSegregationinBuffalo:AnAgent-BasedSimulation"UrbanStudies46(13),pp2749–2770. Furtherreading[edit] Grigoryeva,Angelina;Ruef,Martin(August2015).TheHistoricalDemographyofRacialSegregation.AmericanSociologicalReview.Vol. 80.pp. 814–842. Elliott,Mark(2006).Color-BlindJustice:AlbionTourgéeandtheQuestforRacialEqualityfromtheCivilWartoPlessyv.Ferguson.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-518139-5. Tushnet,Mark(2008).Idissent:GreatOpposingOpinionsinLandmarkSupremeCourtCases.Boston:BeaconPress.pp. 69–80.ISBN 978-0-8070-0036-6. Brook,Thomas(1997).Plessyv.Ferguson:ABriefHistorywithDocuments.Boston:BedfordBooks. Fireside,Harvey(2004).SeparateandUnequal:HomerPlessyandtheSupremeCourtDecisionThatLegalizedRacism.NewYork:Carroll&Graf.ISBN 978-0-7867-1293-9. Lofgren,CharlesA.(1987).ThePlessyCase:ALegal-HistoricalInterpretation.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress. Medley,KeithWeldon(2003).WeAsFreemen:Plessyv.Ferguson.Gretna,LA:Pelican.ISBN 978-1-58980-120-2. Chin,GabrielJ.(1996)."ThePlessyMyth:JusticeHarlanandtheChineseCases".IowaLawReview.82:151.doi:10.17077/0021-065X.4551.SSRN 1121505. Nightengale,CarlH.(2012).Segregation:AGlobalHistoryofDividedCities.Chicago,London:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 978-0-226-58074-6. Hutt,WilliamHarold(2007).Theeconomicsofthecolourbar.Auburn,Alabama:TheLudwigvonMisesInstitute. Externallinks[edit] WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoRacialsegregation. Review EncyclopædiaBritannica:ArticleonRacialSegregation Astudyofsegregation SouthAfrica'sDistrictSixMuseumwhichexaminesforcedsegregation vteRacismTypesofracism Aversive Colorism Covert Cultural Cyber Environmental Gendered Institutional Internalized Laissez-faire Linguistic Neocolonial Romantic Scientific Societal Symbolic Xenophobia Manifestationsofracism Anti-miscegenationlaws Apartheid Biologicaldeterminism Discriminationbasedonnationality Globalapartheid Ethnicconflict Ethnichatred Ethnicjokes Ethnicslurs Ethnicstereotypes Hatecrime Hatespeech Racialhierarchy Racialnationalism Racialprofiling Racialsegregation Racismbyregion Africa(SouthAfrica) Arabworld Asia Australia Europe MiddleEast NorthAmerica Canada UnitedStates SouthAmerica Racismbytarget Anti-Romanisentiment Antisemitism Misogynoir Negrophobia RacismagainstAsians Whitesupremacy Relatedtopics Anti-racism Casteism Ethnicplasticsurgery InterminorityracismintheUnitedStates Listofanti-cultural,anti-national,andanti-ethnicterms 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Discriminatorypolicies Ageofcandidacy Bloodpurity Bloodquantum Crimeofapartheid Disabilities Catholic Jewish Ethnocracy Ethnopluralism Genderpaygap Genderroles Gerontocracy Gerrymandering Ghettobenches Internment Jewishquota JimCrowlaws LawforProtectionoftheNation MSMblooddonationrestrictions Nonpersons Numerusclausus(asreligiousorracialquota) NurembergLaws One-droprule Racialquota Racialsteering Redlining Same-sexmarriage(lawsandissuesprohibiting) Segregation age racial religious sexual Socialexclusion Sodomylaw Stateatheism Statereligion Uglylaw Votersuppression Countermeasures Affirmativeaction Anti-discriminationlaw Culturalassimilation Culturalpluralism Diversitytraining Empowerment Fatacceptancemovement Feminism FightingDiscrimination Hatespeechlawsbycountry Humanrights Intersexhumanrights LGBTrights Masculism Multiculturalism Nonviolence Racialintegration Reappropriation Self-determination Socialintegration Toleration Relatedtopics Allophilia Amatonormativity Anti-cultural,anti-national,andanti-ethnicterms Bias Christianprivilege Civilliberties Dehumanization Diversity Ethnicpenalty Eugenics Heteronormativity Internalizedoppression Intersectionality Maleprivilege Masculism Medicalmodelofdisability autism Multiculturalism Netbias Neurodiversity Oikophobia Oppression Policebrutality Politicalcorrectness Polyculturalism Powerdistance Prejudice Prisonerabuse RacialbiasincriminalnewsintheUnitedStates Racismbycountry Religiousintolerance Second-generationgenderbias Snobbery Socialexclusion Socialmodelofdisability Socialstigma Speciesism Stereotype threat Thetalk Whiteprivilege Category Commons Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries France(data) Germany Israel UnitedStates CzechRepublic Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racial_segregation&oldid=1104588083" 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