8.2 Types of Crime – Social Problems - Publishing Services

Within each category, many more specific crimes exist. For example, violent crime includes homicide, aggravated and simple assault, rape and sexual assault, ... Skiptocontent LearningObjectives Describethemajoraspectsofhomicide. Discussevidenceindicatingthatwhite-collarcrimeismoreseriousthanstreetcrime. Explainthemajorissuesraisedbytheconceptofconsensualcrime. Manytypesofcrimeexist.Criminologistscommonlygroupcrimesintoseveralmajorcategories:(1)violentcrime;(2)propertycrime;(3)white-collarcrime;(4)organizedcrime;and(5)consensualorvictimlesscrime.Withineachcategory,manymorespecificcrimesexist.Forexample,violentcrimeincludeshomicide,aggravatedandsimpleassault,rapeandsexualassault,androbbery,whilepropertycrimeincludesburglary,larceny,motorvehicletheft,andarson.Becauseafulldiscussionofthemanytypesofcrimewouldtakeseveralchaptersorevenanentirebookormore,wehighlightherethemostimportantdimensionsofthemajorcategoriesofcrimeandtheissuestheyraiseforpublicsafetyandcrimecontrol. ViolentCrime Evenif,asourearlierdiscussionindicated,thenewsmediaexaggeratetheproblemofviolentcrime,itremainstruethatviolentcrimeplaguesmanycommunitiesaroundthecountryandisthetypeofcrimethatmostconcernsAmericans.Thenewsstorythatbeganthischapterremindsusthatviolentcrimeisalltoorealfortoomanypeople;ittrapssomepeopleinsidetheirhomesandmakesothersafraidtolettheirchildrenplayoutsideoreventowalktoschool.Rapeandsexualassaultareacommonconcernformanywomenandleadsthemtobemorefearfulofbeingvictimizedthanmen:Inthe2011Galluppollmentionedearlier,37percentofwomensaidtheyworriedaboutbeingsexuallyassaulted,comparedtoonly6percentofmen(seeFigure8.1“GenderandWorryaboutBeingSexuallyAssaulted(PercentageSayingTheyWorry“Frequently”or“Occasionally”)”). Figure8.1GenderandWorryaboutBeingSexuallyAssaulted(PercentageSayingTheyWorry“Frequently”or“Occasionally”) Source:DatafromMaguire,K.(Ed.).(2011).Sourcebookofcriminaljusticestatistics.Retrievedfromhttp://www.albany.edu/sourcebook. Researchonviolentcrimetendstofocusonhomicideandonrapeandsexualassault.Homicide,ofcourse,isconsideredthemostseriouscrimebecauseitinvolvesthetakingofahumanlife.Aswell,homicidedataareconsideredmoreaccuratethanthoseforothercrimesbecausemosthomicidescometotheattentionofthepoliceandaremorelikelythanothercrimestoleadtoanarrest.Foritspart,thefocusonrapeandsexualassaultreflectsthecontemporarywomen’smovement’sinterestintheserelatedcrimesbeginninginthe1970sandthecorrespondinginterestofcriminologists,bothfemaleandmale,inthecriminalvictimizationofwomen. Certainaspectsofhomicideareworthnoting.First,althoughsomehomicidesarepremeditated,mostinfactarerelativelyspontaneousandtheresultofintenseemotionslikeanger,hatred,orjealousy(Fox,Levin,&Quinet,2012).Twopeoplemaybeginarguingforanynumberofreasons,andthingsescalate.Afightmaythenensuethatresultsinafatalinjury,butoneoftheantagonistsmayalsopickupaweaponanduseit.About25–50percentofallhomicidesarevictim-precipitated,meaningthattheeventualvictimistheonewhostartstheargumentorthefirstonetoescalateitonceithasbegun. Second,andrelatedtothefirstaspect,mosthomicideoffendersandvictimskneweachotherbeforethehomicideoccurred.Indeed,aboutthree-fourthsofallhomicidesinvolvenonstrangers,andonlyone-fourthinvolvestrangers.Intimatepartners(spouses,ex-spouses,andcurrentandformerpartners)andotherrelativescommitalmost30percentofallhomicides(Messner,Deane,&Beaulieu,2002).ThusalthoughfearofadeadlyattackbyastrangerdominatestheAmericanconsciousness,weinfactaremuchmorelikelyonaveragetobekilledbysomeoneweknowthanbysomeonewedonotknow. Abouttwo-thirdsofhomicidesinvolvefirearms,andhalfinvolveahandgun. GeofferyFairchild–TheRobbery–CCBY2.0. Third,abouttwo-thirdsofhomicidesinvolvefirearms.Tobeabitmoreprecise,justoverhalfinvolveahandgun,andtheremainingfirearm-relatedhomicidesinvolveashotgun,rifle,oranotherundeterminedfirearm.Combiningthesefirstthreeaspects,then,themosttypicalhomicideinvolvesnonstrangerswhohaveanargumentthatescalatesandthenresultsintheuseofdeadlyforcewhenoneoftheantagonistsusesahandgun. Fourth,mosthomicides(asmostviolentcrimeingeneral)areintraracial,meaningthattheyoccurwithinthesamerace;theoffenderandvictimareofthesamerace.Forsingleoffender/singlevictimhomicideswheretheraceofbothpartiesisknown,about90percentofAfricanAmericanvictimsarekilledbyAfricanAmericanoffenders,andabout83percentofwhitevictimsarekilledbywhiteoffenders(FederalBureauofInvestigation,2011).AlthoughwhitesfearvictimizationbyAfricanAmericansmorethanbywhites,whitesinfactaremuchmorelikelytobekilledbyotherwhitesthanbyAfricanAmericans.WhileAfricanAmericansdocommitabouthalfofallhomicides,mostoftheirvictimsarealsoAfricanAmerican. Fifth,malescommitabout90percentofallhomicidesandfemalescommitonly10percent.AswediscussinSection3.1“RacialandEthnicInequality:AHistoricalPrelude”,malesaremuchmorelikelythanwomentocommitmostformsofcrime,andthisisespeciallytrueforhomicideandotherviolentcrime. Sixth,thehomiciderateismuchhigherinlargecitiesthaninsmalltowns.In2010,thehomiciderate(numberofhomicidesper100,000population)incitieswithapopulationatorover250,000was10.0percent,comparedtoonly2.5percentintownswithapopulationbetween10,000and24,999(seeFigure8.2“PopulationSizeandHomicideRate,2010”).Thustheriskforhomicideisfourtimesgreaterinlargecitiesthaninsmalltowns.Whilemostpeopleinlargecitiescertainlydonotdiefromhomicide,wherewelivestillmakesadifferenceinourchancesofbeingvictimizedbyhomicideandothercrime. Figure8.2PopulationSizeandHomicideRate,2010 Source:DatafromFederalBureauofInvestigation.(2011).CrimeintheUnitedStates,2010.Washington,DC:Author. Finally,thehomiciderateroseinthelate1980sandpeakedduringtheearly1990sbeforedecliningsharplyuntiltheearly2000sandthenlevelingoffanddecliningabitfurthersincethen.Althoughdebatecontinuesoverwhythehomicideratedeclinedduringthe1990s,manycriminologistsattributethedeclinetoastrongeconomy,anebbingofgangwarsoverdrugtrafficking,andadeclineofpeopleinthe15–25agegroupthatcommitsadisproportionateamountofcrime(Blumstein&Wallman,2006).Someobserversbelieverisingimprisonmentratesalsomadeadifference,andwereturntothisissuelaterinthischapter. RapeandsexualassaultwereincludedinChapter4“GenderInequality”’sdiscussionofviolenceagainstwomenasaseriousmanifestationofgenderinequality.Asthatchapternoted,itisestimatedthatone-thirdofwomenontheplanethavebeenrapedorsexuallyassaulted,beaten,orphysicallyabusedinsomeotherway(Heise,Ellseberg,&Gottemoeller,1999).WhileitistemptingtoconcludethatsuchviolenceismuchmorecommoninpoornationsthaninawealthynationliketheUnitedStates,wesawinChapter4“GenderInequality”thatviolenceagainstwomeniscommoninthisnationaswell.Likehomicide,aboutthree-fourthsofallrapesandsexualassaultsinvolveindividualswhoknoweachother,notstrangers. PropertyCrime Asnotedearlier,themajorpropertycrimesareburglary,larceny,motorvehicletheft,andarson.ThesecrimesarequitecommonintheUnitedStatesandothernationsand,asTable8.1“NumberofCrimes:UniformCrimeReports(UCR)andNationalCrimeVictimizationSurvey(NCVS),2010”indicated,millionsoccurannuallyinthiscountry.ManyAmericanshaveinstalledburglaralarmsandothersecuritymeasuresintheirhomesandsimilardevicesintheircarsandSUVs.Whilepropertycrimebydefinitiondoesnotinvolvephysicalharm,itstillmakesusconcerned,inpartbecauseittouchessomanyofus.Althoughpropertycrimehasinfactdeclinedalongwithviolentcrimesincetheearly1990s,itstillisconsideredamajorcomponentofthecrimeproblem,becauseitissocommonandproduceslossesofbillionsofdollarsannually. Muchpropertycrimecanbeunderstoodintermsoftherolesandsocialnetworksofpropertycriminals.Inthisregard,manyscholarsdistinguishbetweenamateurtheftandprofessionaltheft.Mostpropertyoffendersareamateuroffenders:Theyareyoungandunskilledinthewaysofcrime,andtheamounttheygainfromanysingletheftisrelativelysmall.Theyalsodonotplantheircrimesandinsteadcommitthemwhentheyseeanopportunityforquickillegalgain.Incontrast,professionalpropertyoffenderstendtobeolderandquiteskilledinthewaysofcrime,andtheamounttheygainfromanysingletheftisrelativelylarge.Notsurprisingly,theyoftenplantheircrimeswellinadvance.Theso-calledcatburglar,someonewhoscalestallbuildingstostealjewels,expensiveartwork,orlargesumsofmoney,isperhapstheprototypicalexampleoftheprofessionalpropertycriminals.Manyprofessionalthieveslearnhowtodotheircrimesfromotherprofessionalthieves,andinthissensetheyarementoredbythelatterjustasstudentsarementoredbyprofessors,andyoungworkersbyolderworkers. White-CollarCrime Ifyouwereaskedtopictureacriminalinyourmind,whatimagewouldyoubelikelytothinkoffirst:ascruffyyoungmalewithascowlorsneeronhisface,orahandsome,middle-agedmandressedinathree-piecebusinesssuit?Nodoubttheformerimagewouldcometomindfirst,ifonlybecauseviolentcrimeandpropertycrimedominatenewspaperheadlinesandtelevisionnewscastsandbecausemanyofushavebeenvictimsofviolentorpropertycrime.Yetwhite-collarcrimeisarguablymuchmoreharmfulthanstreetcrime,bothintermsofeconomiclossandofphysicalinjury,illness,andevendeath. Whatexactlyiswhite-collarcrime?ThemostfamousdefinitioncomesfromEdwinSutherland(1949,p.9),asociologistwhocoinedtheterminthe1940sanddefineditas“acrimecommittedbyapersonofrespectabilityandhighsocialstatusinthecourseofhisoccupation.”SutherlandexaminedthebehavioroftheseventylargestUScorporationsandfoundthattheyhadviolatedthelawhundredsoftimesamongthem.SeveralhadengagedincrimesduringeitherWorldWarIorII;theyprovideddefectiveweaponsandspoiledfoodtoUStroopsandevensoldweaponstoGermanyandothernationstheUnitedStateswasfighting. Althoughwhite-collarcrimeasstudiedtodayincludesautoshoprepairfraudandemployeetheftbycashiers,bookkeepers,andotheremployeesofrelativelylowstatus,mostresearchfollowsSutherland’sdefinitioninfocusingoncrimecommittedbypeopleof“respectabilityandhighsocialstatus.”Thusmuchofthestudyofwhite-collarcrimetodayfocusesonfraudbyphysicians,attorneys,andotherprofessionalsandonillegalbehaviorbyexecutivesofcorporationsdesignedtoprotectorimprovecorporateprofits(corporatecrime). Inthestudyofprofessionalfraud,health-carefraudstandsoutforitsextentandcost(Rosoff,Pontell,&Tillman,2010).Health-carefraudisthoughttoamounttomorethan$100billionperyear,comparedtolessthan$20billionforallpropertycrimecombined.Forexample,somephysiciansbillMedicareandprivateinsuranceforservicesthatpatientsdonotreallyneedandmayneverreceive.Medicalsupplycompaniessometimesfurnishsubstandardequipment.Tocompensatefortheeconomiclossitincurs,health-carefrauddrivesupmedicalexpensesandinsurancecosts.Inthissense,itstealsfromthepubliceventhoughnooneeverbreaksintoyourhouseorrobsyouatgunpoint. Althoughhealth-careandotherprofessionalfraudareserious,corporatecrimedwarfsallotherformsofwhite-collarcrimeintheeconomiclossitincursandinthedeath,injury,andillnessitcauses.Corporatefinancialcrimeinvolvessuchactivitiesasfraud,pricefixing,andfalseadvertising.TheEnronscandalin2001involvedanenergycorporationwhosechiefexecutivesexaggeratedprofits.AftertheirfraudandEnron’smoredirefinancialstatewerefinallyrevealed,thecompany’sstockplummetedanditfinallywentbankrupt.Itsthousandsofworkerslosttheirjobsandpensions,andinvestorsinitsstocklostbillionsofdollars.Severalothermajorcorporationsengagedin(orstronglysuspectedofdoingso)accountingfraudduringthelate1990sandearly2000s,butEnronwasmerelythemostnotoriousexampleofwidespreadscandalthatmarkedthisperiod. Whilecorporatefinancialcrimeandcorruptionhavecostthenationuntoldbillionsofdollarsinthisandearlierdecades,corporateviolence—actionsbycorporationsthatkillormaimpeopleorleavethemill—isevenmorescandalous.Thevictimsofcorporateviolenceincludecorporateemployees,consumersofcorporategoods,andthepublicasawhole.Annualdeathsfromcorporateviolenceexceedthenumberofdeathsfromhomicide,andillnessandinjuryfromcorporateviolenceaffectanuntoldnumberofpeopleeveryyear. Theasbestosindustrylearnedinthe1930sthatasbestoswasamajorhealthhazard,butitkeptthisdiscoveryasecretformorethanthreedecades. AaronSuggs–Asbestos–CCBY2.0. Employeesofcorporationssufferfromunsafeworkplacesinwhichworkersareexposedtohazardousconditionsandchemicalsbecausetheircompaniesfailtotakeadequatemeasurestoreduceoreliminatethisexposure.Suchexposuremayresultinillness,andexposureovermanyyearscanresultindeath.Accordingtoarecentestimate,morethan50,000peopledieeachyearfromworkplaceexposure(AmericanFederationofLaborandCongressofIndustrialOrganizations[AFL-CIO],2010),afigureaboutthreetimesgreaterthanthenumberofannualhomicides.About1,500coalminersdieeachyearfromblacklungdisease,whichresultsfromthebreathingofcoaldust;manyandperhapsmostofthesedeathswouldbepreventableifcoalminingcompaniestookadequatesafetymeasures(G.Harris,1998).Inanotherexample,theasbestosindustrylearnedduringthe1930sthatexposuretoasbestoscouldcausefatallungdiseaseandcancer.Despitethisknowledge,asbestoscompanieshidevidenceofthishazardformorethanthreedecades:Theyallowedtheirworkerstocontinuetoworkwithasbestosandmarketedasbestosasafireretardantthatwaswidelyinstalledinschoolsandotherbuildings.Morethan200,000asbestosworkersandmembersofthepubliceitherhavealreadydiedorareexpectedtodiefromasbestosexposure;mostorallofthesedeathscouldhavebeenpreventediftheasbestosindustryhadactedresponsiblywhenitfirstdiscovereditwasmanufacturingadangerousproduct(Lilienfeld,1991). Unsafeproductsalsokillormaimconsumers.OneofthemostnotoriousexamplesofdeathsfromanunsafeproductinvolvedtheFordPinto,acarfirstsoldintheearly1970sthatwasvulnerabletofireandexplosionwhenhitfrombehindinaminorrear-endcollision(Cullen,Maakestad,&Cavender,2006).FordknewbeforethePintowentonthemarketthatitsgastankwasunusuallyvulnerableinarear-endcollisionanddetermineditwouldtakeabout$11percartofixtheproblem.Itthendidacost-benefitanalysistodeterminewhetheritwouldcostmoretofixtheproblemorinsteadtosettlelawsuitsafterPintodriversandpassengersdiedorwereburnedandinjuredinrear-endcollisions.ThisanalysisindicatedthatFordwouldsaveabout$87millionifitdidnotfixtheproblemandinsteadpaidoutcompensationafterPintodriversandpassengersdiedorgotburned.BecauseFordmadethisdecision,aboutfivehundredpeopleeventuallydiedinPintorear-endcollisionsandmanyotherswereburned. Thetollofwhite-collarcrime,bothfinancialandviolent,isdifficulttoestimate,butbyallaccountsitexceedstheeconomiclossanddeathandinjuryfromallstreetcrimecombined.White-collarcrimeisthoughttoinvolveanannualeconomiclossofmorethan$700billionannuallyfromcorporatefraud,professionalfraud,employeetheft,andtaxevasionandanannualtollofatleast100,000deathsfromworkplace-relatedillnessorinjury,unsafeproducts,andpreventableenvironmentalpollution.Thesefigurescomparetoaneconomiclossoflessthan$20billionfrompropertycrimeandadeathtollofabout17,000fromhomicide(Barkan,2012).Byanymeasure,thetollofwhite-collarcrimedwarfsthetollofstreetcrime,eventhoughthelatterworriesusmuchmorethanwhite-collarcrime.Despitetheharmthatwhite-collarcrimecauses,thetypicalcorporatecriminalreceivesmuchmorelenientpunishment,ifany,thanthetypicalstreetcriminal(Rosoffetal.,2010). OrganizedCrime Organizedcrimereferstocriminalactivitybygroupsororganizationswhosemajorpurposeforexistingistocommitsuchcrime.Whenweheartheterm“organizedcrime,”wealmostautomaticallythinkoftheso-calledMafia,vividlyportrayedintheGodfathermoviesandotherfilms,thatcomprisesseveralhighlyorganizedandhierarchicalItalianAmerican“families.”AlthoughItalianAmericanshavecertainlybeeninvolvedinorganizedcrimeintheUnitedStates,sohaveIrishAmericans,Jews,AfricanAmericans,andotherethnicitiesovertheyears.TheemphasisonItaliandominationoforganizedcrimeoverlookstheseotherinvolvementsanddivertsattentionfromtheactualrootsoforganizedcrime. Whataretheseroots?Simplyput,organizedcrimeexistsandeventhrivesbecauseitprovidesgoodsand/orservicesthatthepublicdemands.Organizedcrimeflourishedduringthe1920sbecauseitwasalltooreadyandwillingtoprovideanillegalproduct,alcohol,thatthepubiccontinuedtodemandevenafterProhibitionbegan.Today,organizedcrimeearnsitsconsiderablemoneyfromproductsandservicessuchasillegaldrugs,prostitution,pornography,loansharking,andgambling.Italsobeganlongagotobranchoutintolegalactivitiessuchastrashhaulingandthevendingindustry. Governmenteffortsagainstorganizedcrimesincethe1920shavefocusedonarrest,prosecution,andotherlaw-enforcementstrategies.Organizedcrimehascertainlycontinueddespitetheseefforts.Thisfactleadssomescholarstoemphasizetheneedtoreducepublicdemandforthegoodsandservicesthatorganizedcrimeprovides.However,otherscholarssaythatreducingthisdemandisprobablyafutileormostlyfutiletask,andtheyinsteadurgeconsiderationoflegalizingatleastsomeoftheillegalproductsandservices(e.g.,drugsandprostitution)thatorganizedcrimeprovides.Doingso,theyargue,wouldweakentheinfluenceoforganizedcrime. ConsensualCrime Consensualcrime(alsocalledvictimlesscrime)referstobehaviorsinwhichpeopleengagevoluntarilyandwillinglyeventhoughthesebehaviorsviolatethelaw.Illegaldruguse,discussedinChapter7“AlcoholandOtherDrugs”,isamajorformofconsensualcrime;otherformsincludeprostitution,gambling,andpornography.Peoplewhouseillegaldrugs,whohirethemselvesoutasprostitutesoremploytheservicesofaprostitute,whogambleillegally,andwhousepornographyarealldoingsobecausetheywantto.Thesebehaviorsarenotentirelyvictimless,asillegaldrugusers,forexample,mayharmthemselvesandothers,andthatiswhythetermconsensualcrimeisoftenpreferredovervictimlesscrime.Asjustdiscussed,organizedcrimeprovidessomeoftheillegalproductsandservicesthatcomposeconsensualcrime,buttheseproductsandservicescertainlycomefromsourcesotherthanorganizedcrime. Thisissueaside,theexistenceofconsensualcrimeraisestworelatedquestionsthatwefirstencounteredinChapter7“AlcoholandOtherDrugs”.First,towhatdegreeshouldthegovernmentbanbehaviorsthatpeoplewillinglycommitandthatgenerallydonothaveunwillingvictims?Second,dogovernmentattemptstobansuchbehaviorsdomoregoodthanharmormoreharmthangood?Chapter7“AlcoholandOtherDrugs”’sdiscussionofthesequestionsfocusedonillegaldrugs,andinparticularontheproblemscausedbylawsagainstcertaindrugs,butsimilarproblemsarisefromlawsagainstothertypesofconsensualcrime.Forexample,lawsagainstprostitutionenablepimpstocontrolprostitutesandhelpensurethetransmissionofsexualdiseasesbecausecondomsarenotregularlyused. Criticsofconsensualcrimelawssaywearenowinanewprohibitionandthatourlawsagainstillegaldrugs,prostitution,andcertainformsofgamblingarecausingthesameproblemsnowthatthebanonalcoholdidduringthe1920sand,moregenerally,causemoreharmthangood.Proponentsoftheselawsrespondthatthelawsarestillnecessaryasanexpressionofsociety’smoralvaluesandasameans,howeverimperfect,ofreducinginvolvementinharmfulbehaviors. KeyTakeaways Mosthomicidesarecommittedforrelativelyemotional,spontaneousreasonsandbetweenpeoplewhokneweachotherbeforehand. White-collarcrimeinvolvesmoredeath,injury,andeconomiclossthanstreetcrime,butthepunishmentofwhite-collarcrimeisrelativelyweak. Consensualcrimeraisestworelatedissues:(a)Towhatextentshouldthegovernmentprohibitpeoplefromengaginginbehaviorinwhichtherearenounwillingvictims,and(b)dolawsagainstconsensualcrimedomoregoodthanharmormoreharmthangood? ForYourReview Ifhomicideisarelativelyemotional,spontaneouscrime,whatdoesthatimplyforeffortstouseharshlegalpunishment,includingthedeathpenalty,todeterpeoplefromcommittinghomicide? Doyouthinkconsensualcrimesshouldbemadelegal?Whyorwhynot? References AmericanFederationofLaborandCongressofIndustrialOrganizations(AFL-CIO).(2010).Deathonthejob:Thetollofneglect.Washington,DC:Author. Barkan,S.E.(2012).Criminology:Asociologicalunderstanding(5thed.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall. Blumstein,A.,&Wallman,J.(Eds.).(2006).ThecrimedropinAmerica(2nded.).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. FederalBureauofInvestigation.(2011).CrimeintheUnitedStates,2010.Washington,DC:FederalAuthor. Fox,J.A.,Levin,J.,&Quinet,K.(2012).Thewilltokill:Makingsenseofsenselessmurder.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall. Harris,G.(1998,April19).Despitelaws,hundredsarekilledbyblacklung.TheCourier-Journal(Louisville,KY),p.A1. Heise,L.,Ellseberg,M.,&Gottemoeller,M.(1999).Endingviolenceagainstwomen.PopulationReports,27(4),1–44. Cullen,F.T.,Maakestad,W.J.,&Cavender,G.(2006).Corporatecrimeunderattack:Thefighttocriminalizebusinessviolence.Cincinnati,OH:Anderson. Lilienfeld,D.E.(1991).Thesilence:Theasbestosindustryandearlyoccupationalcancerresearch—acasestudy.AmericanJournalofPublicHealth,81,791–800. Messner,S.F.,Deane,G.,&Beaulieu,M.(2002).Alog-multiplicativeassociationmodelforallocatinghomicideswithunknownvictim-offenderrelationships.Criminology,40,457–479. Rosoff,S.M.,Pontell,H.N.,&Tillman,R.(2010).Profitwithouthonor:WhitecollarcrimeandthelootingofAmerica(5thed.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PrenticeHall. Sutherland,E.H.(1949).Whitecollarcrime.NewYork,NY:Holt,Rinehart,andWinston. Previous/nextnavigation Previous:8.1TheProblemofCrime Next:8.3WhoCommitsCrime? Backtotop License SocialProblemsbyUniversityofMinnesotaislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike4.0InternationalLicense,exceptwhereotherwisenoted.