HMS Ark Royal (91) - Wikipedia

Designed in 1934 to fit the restrictions of the Washington Naval Treaty, Ark Royal was built by Cammell Laird at Birkenhead, England, and completed in November ... HMSArkRoyal(91) FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch 1938aircraftcarrieroftheRoyalNavy Forothershipswiththesamename,seeHMSArkRoyal. HMSArkRoyalin1939,withSwordfishof820NavalAirSquadronpassingoverhead Classoverview PrecededbyCourageousclass Succeeded byIllustriousclass History UnitedKingdom NameArkRoyal NamesakeArkRoyal (1587) Ordered1934buildprogramme BuilderCammellLaird Laiddown16September1935 Launched13April1937 Commissioned16December1938 IdentificationPennantnumber:91 MottoDesiren'apasRepos–"ZealDoesNotRest" Honoursandawards SpanishArmada1588 Cadiz1596[1] Dardanelles1915 Norway1940 Spartivento1940 Mediterranean1940–41 MaltaConvoys1941 Bismarck1941 FateSunkbyU-81,14November1941 Generalcharacteristics TypeAircraftCarrier Displacement 22,000longtons(22,000 t)(standard) 27,720longtons(28,160 t)(deepload) Length 800 ft(240 m)overall 721 ft6 in(219.91 m)waterline Beam94 ft9.6 in(28.895 m) Draught27 ft9.6 in(8.473 m) Installedpower 6×Admiralty3-drumboilers 102,000 shp(76,000 kW) Propulsion3×shafts;3×gearedsteamturbines Speed 30knots(56 km/h;35 mph)asdesigned 31knots(57 km/h;36 mph)actual Range7,600 nmi(14,100 km;8,700 mi)at20knots(37 km/h;23 mph) Complement1,580 officersandratings Armament 8×twin4.5 in(110 mm)DPguns 4×quadruple2-pdr(40 mm(1.57 in))AAguns[2] 8×quadruple.50 in(12.7 mm)AAMGs Armour Belt:4.5 in(11.4 cm) Deck:3.5 in(8.9 cm)overboilerroomsandmagazines Aircraftcarried 72(designed) 50–60(actual) 1939–1940:26×FaireySwordfish,24×BlackburnSkuas 1940–1941:30×FaireySwordfish,12×BlackburnSkuas,12×FaireyFulmars 1941:36×FaireySwordfish,18×FaireyFulmars Aviationfacilities2×catapults HMSArkRoyal(pennantnumber91)wasanaircraftcarrieroftheRoyalNavythatwasoperatedduringtheSecondWorldWar. Designedin1934tofittherestrictionsoftheWashingtonNavalTreaty,ArkRoyalwasbuiltbyCammellLairdatBirkenhead,England,andcompletedinNovember1938.Herdesigndifferedfrompreviousaircraftcarriers.ArkRoyalwasthefirstshiponwhichthehangarsandflightdeckwereanintegralpartofthehull,insteadofanadd-onorpartofthesuperstructure.Designedtocarryalargenumberofaircraft,shehadtwohangardecklevels.Shewasusedduringaperiodthatfirstsawtheextensiveuseofnavalairpower;severalcarriertacticsweredevelopedandrefinedaboardArkRoyal. ArkRoyaloperatedinsomeofthemostactivenavaltheatresoftheSecondWorldWar.ShewasinvolvedinthefirstaerialU-boatkillsofthewar,operationsoffNorway,thesearchfortheGermanbattleshipBismarck,andtheMaltaConvoys.ArkRoyalsurvivedseveralnearmissesandgainedareputationasa'luckyship'.Shewastorpedoedon13November1941bytheGermansubmarine U-81andsankthefollowingday.Oneofher1,488crewmemberswaskilled.Hersinkingwasthesubjectofseveralinquiries,withinvestigatorskeentoknowhowthecarrierwaslostinspiteofeffortstosavetheshipandtowhertothenavalbaseatGibraltar.Theyfoundthatseveraldesignflawscontributedtotheloss,whichwererectifiedinnewBritishcarriers. ThewreckwasdiscoveredinDecember2002byanAmericanunderwatersurveycompanyusingsonarmountedonanautonomousunderwatervehicle,undercontractfromtheBBCforthefilmingofadocumentaryabouttheship,atadepthofabout3,300feet(1,000 m)andapproximately30nauticalmiles(56 km;35 mi)fromGibraltar. Contents 1Design 2Construction 3Armamentandaircraft 4Servicehistory 4.1Withthehunter-killergroups 4.2Anothernearmiss 4.3HuntingtheGrafSpee 4.4Returntothefleet 4.5Norwegiancampaign 4.6Mediterraneandeployment 4.7SearchingforScharnhorstandGneisenau 4.8MaltaconvoysandOperationTiger 4.9HuntingtheBismarck 4.10EscortingtheMaltaconvoys 5Finalvoyageandsinking 5.1Investigation 6Rediscovery 7Notes 8Citations 9References 9.1Books 9.2Websites 10Externallinks Design[edit] In1923,theAdmiraltyprepareda10-yearbuildingprogrammewhichincludedanaircraftcarrierand300 aircraftfortheFleetAirArm.[3]TheeconomicdownturnfollowingtheFirstWorldWarcausedittobepostponed.In1930,theDirectorofNavalConstruction,SirArthurJohns,begantoupdatetheplansforthecarrierbyincorporatingrecentlydevelopedtechnology.[3]Hisaimwastoincreasethenumberofaircraftcarriedbyshorteningthelandingandtake-offdistancesofaircraftusingarrestorgearandcompressedsteamcatapultsrespectively,whichwouldmakemoredeckspaceavailableforstorageandaircraftpreparation.[3][4]Alongwiththeinclusionoftwohangardecks,thisallowedArkRoyaltocarryupto72 aircraft,althoughthedevelopmentoflargerandheavieraircraftduringthecarrier'sconstructionmeantthattheactualnumbercarriedwasbetween50and60.[5]ArkRoyalfeaturedanenclosedhangardesign[6]wheretheflightdeckwasthe'strengthdeck'[7]andwasstronglybuiltwith.75in(19mm)thickDucolsteelplating.Thetwohangardeckswerethusenclosedwithinthehullgirder,whichalsogavesplinterprotectiontothehangars.Themachineryspaceswereprotectedby4.5-inch(11.4 cm)beltarmour.[4]Threeliftsmovedaircraftbetweenthehangarsandtheflightdeck.[4] ArkRoyal'sflightdeckoverhungthestern.Herunusualheightabovethewaterlineisvisibleincomparisonwiththetugboat. Anotherfeaturewasthelengthandheightoftheflightdeck.At800feet(240 m),theflightdeckwas118feet(36 m)longerthanthekeel;thelatterdictatedbythelengthofRoyalNavydrydocksinGibraltarandMalta.[4]Duetothetwinhangardecks,theflightdeckroseto66feet(20 m)abovethewaterline.[8] TheWashingtonandLondonNavaltreatieshadrestrictedwarshiptonnageforanumberofnationsaftertheendoftheGreatWarandwerebothtoexpirebytheendof1936.[a]WithapotentialnavalarmsracedevelopingbetweenBritain,JapanandItaly,theBritishgovernmentsoughtasecondtreaty,whichincludedlimitingthemaximumdisplacementofanaircraftcarrierto23,000longtons(23,000 t).ArkRoyalwouldhavetofitthisanticipatedlimit;toconserveweight,armourplatingwaslimitedtothebelt,enginerooms,andmagazines,whileweldinginsteadofrivetting65%ofthehullsaved500longtons(510 t).[9]Installationofanarmouredflightdeckwasnotpossible,astheweightwouldhaveplacedArkRoyalabovetheproposedlimit,whilereducingherenduranceandstability.[9]Theshipwasdesignedwithathree-layersideprotectionsystembaseduponavoid-liquid-voidschemeverysimilartothatusedontheKingGeorgeV-classbattleships,andwasdesignedtoprotectagainsttorpedoeswithuptoa750-pound(340 kg)warhead.[10][11] Theshipwasfittedwithsixboilers,whichpoweredthreeParsonsgearedturbines.Theturbineswereconnectedviathreedriveshaftstothreepropellers16feet(4.9 m)indiameter,toproduceamaximumtheoreticalspeedof30knots(56 km/h;35 mph).[12][13]Speedwasimportant,aswithcatapultsandarrestorgear,ArkRoyalwouldhavetoturnintothewindtolaunchandrecoveraircraft.Toavoidendangeringothershipswiththefrequentcoursechangesassociatedwithflightoperations,ArkRoyalwouldhavetobreakawayfromaccompanyingships,andcatchuponcompletion.Additionally,asthecarrierwasnotarmedforship-to-shipcombat,speedwashermainprotectionagainstenemywarships.[3] Construction[edit] Thedeterioratinginternationalsituationby1933,typifiedbyGermany'srearmamentandtheexpansionofJapanandItaly,convincedtheBritishtoannouncefundsforthecarrier'sconstructioninthe1934budgetproposals.[14]TheplanswerefinishedbyNovember1934andweretenderedinFebruary1935toCammellLairdandCompanyLtd.,whichcalculatedthecostofthehullat£1,496,250(equivalentto£110,500,000in2021)[15]andthemainmachineryatapproximately£500,000(equivalentto£31,850,000in2016).[12][16]Theoverallcostwasestimatedtobeover£3 million,makingArkRoyalthemostexpensivenon-battleshiporderedbytheRoyalNavy.[17]ConstructionbeganonJobNo. 1012whenArkRoyal'skeelwaslaiddownon16September1935.[18] ArkRoyalimmediatelyafterlaunching.Theliftsontheflightdeckandtheanti-aircraftpositionsonthehullarevisible. ArkRoyalspentnearlytwoyearsinthebuilder'syardbeforebeinglaunchedon13April1937byLadyMaudHoare,wifeofSirSamuelHoare,thenFirstLordoftheAdmiralty.ThebottleofchampagnethrownagainstArkRoyal'sbowsdidnotsmashuntilthefourthattempt.[19]Thecarrierspentayearfittingout,washandedovertoherfirstcommander,CaptainArthurPower,on16November1938,andwascommissionedon16December.[18]AlthoughintendedfortheFarEast,eventsinEuropeduringthecarrier'sconstruction,includingtheItalianinvasionofAbyssiniain1935andtheSpanishCivilWarin1936,causedtheAdmiraltytomarkherfordeploymentwiththeHomeandMediterraneanFleets.[20]Afterhercrewjoinedattheendof1938,ArkRoyalunderwentseatrialstoprepareforservice,duringwhichthecarrierprovedcapableofsailingabovehertheoreticalspeed,reachingover31knots(57 km/h;36 mph)[8]andintrialsduringMay1938ArkRoyalachieved31.2knots(57.8 km/h;35.9 mph)with103,012shafthorsepower(76,816 kW)atadeepdisplacementof27,525longtons(27,967 t).[21] Armamentandaircraft[edit] ArkRoyal'sarmamentwasdesignedwithanti-aircraftwarfareinmind,asaircraftwereexpectedtobethemainthreat;shipsandsubmarinescouldbeoutrunordealtwithbyescorts.[22][23]Hermainarmamentwassixteenquick-firing4.5-inch(110 mm)dualpurposegunsineightdoubleturrets,fouroneachsideofthehull,controlledbyfourDirectorsusingtheHighAngleControlSystem.[4]Theoriginaldesignplacedtheturretslowonthehull,butwaslateralteredtolocatethemjustbelowtheflightdeck,whichincreasedeachturret'sfieldoffire.[4]Six[2]8-barrelled2-pounder(40-millimetre(1.57 in))"pom-pom"gunswerelocatedontheflightdeck,infrontofandbehindthesuperstructureisland,whileeight4-barrelled.50-inch(12.7 mm)machinegunswereinstalledonsmallprojectingplatformstothefrontandrearoftheflightdeck.[24] SixteenFleetAirArmsquadronswerepostedaboardArkRoyalduringhercareer;anaverageoffivesquadronsatanytime.Onenteringservice,mostofArkRoyal'ssquadronswereequippedwitheitherBlackburnSkuas—usedasfightersanddivebombers—orFaireySwordfish,forreconnaissanceandtorpedobombing.FromApril1940,squadronsequippedwithSkuaswereupgradedtoFaireyFulmars;liketheirpredecessors,thesewereusedasfightersandbombers.Onoccasion,thecarrieroperatedBlackburnRocfighter-bombers(fromApril1939–October1940)andFaireyAlbacoretorpedobombers(duringOctober1941);thesewerereplacementaircraftusedtoboostsquadronnumbers.[25]InJune1940,ArkRoyalwashostto701NavalAirSquadron,atrainingsquadronwhichoperatedSupermarineWalrusreconnaissanceamphibians.[26] SquadronsembarkedaboardArkRoyal Squadron Aircraftoperated Embarked(from–to) Notes 800 BlackburnSkuaMk.II January1939–April1941 TransferredtoVictorious 810 FaireySwordfishMk.I January1939–September1941 820 FaireySwordfishMk.I January1939–June1941 – 821 FaireySwordfishMk.I January1939–April1940 RemovedfromoperationalservicefollowinglossesagainstScharnhorst 803 BlackburnSkuaMk.IIBlackburnRocMk.I April1939–October1940 – 818 FaireySwordfishMk.I August–October1939June–July1940 OperatedfromFuriousandlandbasesbetweenOctober1939andJune1940 801 BlackburnSkuaMk.II April–May1940 TransferredtoFurious 807 FaireyFulmarMk.II April–November1941 Embarkedatsinking 701 SupermarineWalrusMk.I June1940 Trainingsquadron 808 FaireyFulmarMk.II September1940–November1941 Embarkedatsinking 821X FaireySwordfishMk.I December1940–January1941 Flightassembledfrom821Squadronsurvivors,laterabsorbedinto815Squadron 800Y FaireyFulmarMk.I June1941 Flightfrom800Squadron 825 FaireySwordfishMk.I June–November1941 Embarkedatsinking 816 FaireySwordfishMk.I July–November1941 Embarkedatsinking 812 FaireySwordfishMk.I September–November1941 Embarkedatsinking 828 FaireySwordfishMk.IFaireyAlbacoreMk.I October1941 RedeployedtoMalta Servicehistory[edit] Withthehunter-killergroups[edit] Themessagesenttotheshipinformingherofthecommencingofhostilitieson3September1939 TheoutbreakoftheSecondWorldWaron3September1939hadbeenpresagedbyGermany'sU-boatfleettakinguppositionsofftheBritishcoast,wheretheycouldinterceptBritishshipping.[27]Withinhoursofthewarstarting,thepassengershipSS AtheniawastorpedoedbyU-30,thefirstofover65,000tonsofshippingsunkbyU-boatsduringthefirstweekofthewar.[27][28]ArkRoyalwasdeployedwiththeHomeFleetintheNorthWesternApproachesaspartofa"hunter-killer"group,consistingofaflotillaofdestroyersandotheranti-submarinevesselsgroupedaroundanaircraftcarrier;eitherCourageous,HermesorArkRoyal.Carrier-borneaircraftcouldincreasetheareasearchedforU-boats,butmadethecarrierstemptingtargets.[28] On14September,ArkRoyalreceivedadistresscallfromSS FanadHead,whichwas200nauticalmiles(230 mi;370 km)awayunderpursuitfromthesurfacedU-30.[29]ArkRoyallaunchedaircrafttoaidthemerchantship,butwasspottedbyU-39,whichlaunchedtwotorpedoes.[29][30]LookoutsspottedthetorpedotracksandArkRoyalturnedtowardstheattack,reducinghercross-sectionandcausingthetorpedoestomissandexplodeharmlesslyastern.[28]ThreeF-classdestroyersescortingthecarrierbegantodepthchargeU-39,andforcedhertothesurface.[30]TheGermancrewabandonedshipbeforeU-39sank—thefirstU-boatlostduringthewar.[30]ArkRoyal'saircraftreachedFanadHead,whichwasinthehandsofaGermanboardingparty.[29]TheSkuasunsuccessfullyattackedU-30:twocrashedwhencaughtbytheblastoftheirownbombs.[29]TheU-boatescapedafterrescuingtheboardingpartyandthepilotsofthedownedaircraft(bothobservershaddrowned),andtorpedoingtheFanadHead.[29] ArkRoyalreturnedtobaseinLochEwe,wheresheandhercrewwereinspectedbyWinstonChurchill.ThesinkingofU-39washailedasimportanttomorale.However,thefailedattackonArkRoyal,andthesuccessfulattackonCourageouson17September,convincedtheAdmiraltyitwastoodangeroustoriskaircraftcarriersinthisway,andcarrier-centredhunter-killergroupswereabandoned.[28] Anothernearmiss[edit] ArkRoyalconductingflyingoperationsin1939 On25September1939,ArkRoyalhelpedrescuethesubmarineSpearfish,whichhadbeendamagedbyGermanwarshipsoffHornReefs,intheKattegat.[31]WhilereturningtoportwithSpearfishandthebattleshipsNelsonandRodneyon26September,theshipswerelocatedbythreeLuftwaffeDornierDo18seaplanes.[12]ArkRoyallaunchedthreeBlackburnSkuastodispersethem;oneDornierwasshotdowninaneventpropagandisedasfirstBritishaerialkillofthewar(lateritwaslearnedthatthepilotofaFaireyBattleachievedthefirstkill.[22] TheaircommanderaboardArkRoyal—awarethatthesurvivingDornierswouldreportthelocationoftheBritishships—orderedtheaircrafttobesecuredandtheanti-aircraftweaponsreadied.[32]FourJunkersJu88bombers[33]oftheLuftwaffebomberwingKG30soonappeared:threeweredrivenawaybyanti-aircraftfire,butthefourthlauncheda2,200-pound(1,000 kg)bombatthecarrier.ArkRoyalturnedhardtostarboard,heelingoverandavoidingthebomb,whichlandedintheocean100feet(30 m)offherstarboardbowandsentaspoutofwaterovertheship.TheGermanpilotsdidnotseeifthecarrierhadbeenhit,andareconnaissanceflightlaterlocatedthetwobattleships,butnotArkRoyal.Basedonthisinformation,theGermansincorrectlyclaimedthatArkRoyalhadsunk.[34]ToprovetheGermanpropagandafalsebeforeithadanegativeeffectonBritain'sallies,WinstonChurchillpersonallyreassuredUnitedStatesPresidentFranklinDelanoRooseveltthatthecarrierwasundamagedandinvitedtheUSnavalattachétoviewArkRoyalindock.[34]TheBritishnavalattachéinRomewasinstructedtoassureItalianPrimeMinisterBenitoMussolinithattheshipwasstillinservice.[34]ThiswasanembarrassmentforGoebbelsandNazipropaganda.[35] HuntingtheGrafSpee[edit] InOctober1939,ArkRoyalwasredeployedtoFreetowntooperateofftheAfricancoastinthehuntfortheGermancommerceraiderAdmiralGrafSpee.ThecarrierwasassignedtoForceK,andsailedwiththebattlecruiserRenowntotheSouthAtlantic.[12]On9October,aircraftfromArkRoyalspottedtheGermantankerAltmark,whichsuppliedGrafSpee.ThetankerwasdisguisedastheUSvesselDelmar,whichfooledtheBritishintopassingherby.[36]On5November,ArkRoyalcapturedtheGermanmerchantSS Uhenfels,whichwasattemptingtoreachGermany.TheshipwaslatertakenintoBritishserviceasacargoship[37]andrenamedEmpireAbility.[38]Severalneutralmerchantshipswerealsospottedbythecarrier'saircraft,twicecausingcrewstobelievetheywereunderattackandabandonship.[39]AnoteexplainingthesituationwasdroppedinabagtoaNorwegianvessel'screw,andtheyre-boarded;anattempttorepeatthisexercisewithaBelgiancrewfailedwhenthebagwasdroppeddowntheship'sfunnel.[39] OnDecember14,1939,GrafSpeehadputintoMontevideotorepairdamagereceivedduringthebattleoftheRiverPlate.TwoRoyalNavycruisersfollowedtheraider,andpatrolledtheharbourentrancewhilereportingGrafSpee'spositiontothefleet.ArkRoyalandRenownweredispatchedtojointheBritishshipsoutsidetheharbour,butastheywere36 hoursaway,theBritishnavalattachécameupwithaplantomaketheGermansbelievethatthetwocapitalshipshadalreadyarrived.AnorderforfuelforArkRoyalwasplacedatBuenosAires,140miles(230 km)westofMontevideo.Thiswasleakedtothepress,passedontotheGermanembassyinMontevideo,andgiventoGrafSpee'scaptain,HansLangsdorff.[40]ThiscontributedtoLangsdorff'sdecisiontoscuttlehisship.[40] Returntothefleet[edit] WithGrafSpeesunk,ArkRoyalremainedintheAtlanticforashorttimebeforeescortingthedamagedheavycruiserExeterbacktoDevonportDockyard,wheretheyarrivedinFebruary.[12]Followingthis,ArkRoyalproceededtoPortsmouthtotakeonsuppliesandpersonnel,beforesailingtoScapaFlow.Onarrival,shetransferredherBlackburnSkuastoNavalAirStationHatstontostrengthentheanchorage'sdefences.[41]ArkRoyalwasthenassignedtotheMediterraneanFleetforexercises,departingScapaFlowon31March1940andheadingforAlexandriawiththeaircraftcarrierGlorious.[12]ThecarriersarrivedintheEasternMediterraneanon8April,buttheexerciseswerecancelledadaylater.TheshipssailedtoGibraltartoawaitorders.[41] GermanforceshadinvadedNorwayaspartofOperationWeserübungon9April,andhadsecuredsectionsofthecoast.AttemptsbytheRoyalNavytooperateinsupportofBritishtroopswereunsuccessful;airattackshadoverwhelmedtheships,sinkingGurkhaandnearlysinkingSuffolk.RealisingthattheBritishshipsrequiredaircover,butawarethattheNorwegiancoastwasoutsidetherangeofBritishland-basedaircraft,theAdmiraltyrecalledArkRoyalandGloriousfromtheMediterraneanon16April.[41] Norwegiancampaign[edit] ArkRoyalandGloriousarrivedatScapaFlowon23April1940andwereimmediatelyredeployedaspartofOperation DX,sailingtoNorwaywiththecruisersCurlewandBerwickandscreenedbythedestroyersHyperion,Hereward,Hasty,Fearless,FuryandJuno.ThiswasthefirsttimetheRoyalNavyhaddeployedcarrierswiththeprimarypurposeofprovidingfighterprotectionforotherwarships.[12]Theshipstookuppositionon25Apriloffthecoast;ArkRoyalpositioned120nauticalmiles(220 km)offshoretoreducethechanceofairattacks.Thecarrier'saircraftconductedanti-submarinepatrols,providedfightersupportforotherships,andcarriedoutstrikesagainstshippingandshoretargets.[12][25]ArkRoyalreturnedtoScapaFlowon27Apriltorefuelandreplacelostanddamagedaircraft,beforeheadingbackonthesamedaywiththebattleshipValiantasescort.[12]Duringthereturn,ArkRoyalcameunderairattackfromGermanJunkersJu88andHeinkelHe111bombersoperatingfromNorway.Thecarrierwasundamaged,andresumedpositionon29April.[42] ABlackburnSkualandingonArkRoyal.TheSkuaswerethemainstayoftheFleetAirArmduringtheearlySecondWorldWar.Alsovisiblearethearrestorwiresstrungacrosstheflightdeck. Bythispoint,theBritishhighcommandhadrealisedthattheycouldnotholdtheGermansinsouthernNorway.TheevacuationofAlliedtroopsfromMoldeandÅndalsnesbegan,withArkRoyalprovidingaircoverfrom30April.On1May,theGermanstriedtosinkthecarrier,withnumerousairattacksthroughtheday.ArkRoyal'sfightersandaheavyanti-aircraftbarragedroveofftheenemy,andalthoughseveralbombsweredroppedatthecarrier,nonehit.[42]TheevacuationsofMoldeandAndalsneswerecompletedon3May,andthecarrierwasrecalledtoScapaFlowtorefuelandrearm.Whileinport,CaptainArthurPowerlefttheshipforapromotiontotheAdmiralty,andwasreplacedbyCaptainCedricHolland.[43]OnreturntoNorway,ArkRoyalwastoldtoprovideaircoverforoperationsaroundNarvik,includingthelandingofFrenchtroopson13May.[44]Shewasjoinedon18MaybythecarriersGloriousandFurious.[12] Despitetheseefforts,itwasclearbytheendofMaythatFrenchforceswereonthevergeofcollapseandNorwaywasasideshowcomparedtotheGermanadvancetotheEnglishChannel.[44]OperationAlphabetwasinstigatedtomoveAlliedtroopsfromNarviktoBritain.ArkRoyalandGlorious—screenedbythedestroyersHighlander,Diana,Acasta,Ardent,andAcheron—sailedfromScapaFlowon1Junetocovertheevacuation,whichcommencedthenextday.ArkRoyalcarriedoutairpatrolsandbombingraidsfrom3–6June,beforeredeployingtoNarvikon7June.Thenextday,Glorious,AcastaandArdentweresunkbytheGermanbattleshipsScharnhorstandGneisenauwhileheadingbacktoBritain.ArkRoyal'saircraftfailedtolocatetheGermanships,whichhadreturnedtoTrondheim.[45] ThelastevacuationconvoyleftNarvikon9June.BeforetheBritishshipscouldwithdraw,araidonTrondheimlocatedScharnhorst.AnattackbyArkRoyal'sSkuastookplaceatmidnighton13June.[46]Theattackwasadisaster:theescortdestroyersAntelopeandElectracollidedwhileArkRoyalwaslaunchingaircraftinfogandreturnedtoEnglandforrepairs,eightofthefifteenattackingSkuaswereshotdown,whileScharnhorstescapeddamage.[47]ArkRoyalreturnedtoScapaFlowthefollowingday,andwasreassignedtotheMediterraneanFleet.[48] Mediterraneandeployment[edit] ArkRoyalleftScapaFlowwiththebattlecruiserHoodandthreedestroyers,arrivingatGibraltaron23June1940.HereshejoinedForceH,underSirJamesSomerville.AfterthecapitulationofFrancetherewasconcernthataFrenchfleetatMers-el-KébirmightfallunderAxiscontrolandtipthebalanceofpowerintheMediterranean,affectingthewholewar.[49]ArkRoyal'scaptain,CedricHolland,hadbeentheBritishnavalattachéinParis,andwassenttonegotiatethesurrenderorscuttlingoftheFrenchfleet.[50]ForceHwasdeployedoutsidetheharbour,andwhentheFrenchadmiralsrefusedtoagreetotheofferedterms,openedfireontheFrenchships.DuringtheattackonMers-el-Kébir,ArkRoyal'saircraftprovidedtargetinginformationfortheBritishships.[51]TheFrenchbattleshipStrasbourgescaped,despiteattacksbySwordfishfromArkRoyal.[52]Twodaysaftertheattack,aircraftfromArkRoyalincapacitatedtheFrenchbattleshipDunkerque,whichhadbeenbeachedintheinitialattack.[53] AFaireySwordfishaircraftlandsonArkRoyal'sflightdeck,whilstaBlackburnSkuacirclesoverhead.PhotographtakenfromKelvinaftertheattacksontheItalianFleetoffSardinia HavingreducedthepossibilityofaFrenchchallengeintheMediterranean,ForceHpreparedforattacksonItaliantargets,andsailedfromGibraltaron8July.[54]TheforcewasattackedbyItalianbomberswithineighthoursofdeparting,andalthoughForceHescapeddamage,SomervillecancelledtheraidsandorderedthefleettoGibraltar.[55]DuringJuly,theBritishcolonyofMaltacameunderattackfromtheItalianairforce,withForceHorderedtodeliverHawkerHurricanestoreinforcetheisland'sairdefences.ForceHwasdeployedfrom31July–4August,withthecarrierArgususedtodelivertheaircraft,whileArkRoyalprovidedaircoverforthefleet.[54]On2August,ArkRoyallaunchedasuccessfulairattackagainsttheItalianairbaseatCagliari.[56] ForceHremainedatGibraltaruntil30September,whenitescortedreinforcementsforAdmiralAndrewCunningham'sfleettoAlexandria.[57]Enroute,diversionaryattackswereplannedonItalianairbasesatElmasandCagliaritodirectattentionfromboththereinforcementoperationandasupplyconvoysailingtoMalta.Theattacksweresuccessfullycarriedouton1October,andthefleetreachedAlexandriawithoutsignificantattentionfromtheItalianairforce.[58]FromAlexandria,ArkRoyalwasdetachedandsenttoWestAfricatosupportBritishattemptstoencourageVichyFrenchcoloniestoswitchallegiancetotheFreeFrench.Duringnegotiations,severalFreeFrenchaircraftflewfromArkRoyal,buttheiraircrewswerearrestedatDakar.Negotiationsfailed,andbombersfromArkRoyalweredirectedagainstmilitaryinstallationsduringtheunsuccessfulBritishattempttotakeDakarbyforce.[59]ArkRoyalthenreturnedtoBritainforrefit,dockinginLiverpoolon8OctoberafterbeingescortedbyFortune,ForesterandGreyhound.[60]Therefit—whichlasteduntil3November—includedrepairstohermachineryandtheinstallationofanewflightdeckbarrier.[61] BombsfallingasternofArkRoyalduringanattackbyItalianaircraftduringtheBattleofCapeSpartivento.PhotographtakenfromthecruiserSheffield Next,ArkRoyal—accompaniedbyBarham,Berwick,andGlasgow—sailedforGibraltar,arrivingon6November.[61]TheyweredeployedwiththerestofForceHtoescortconvoysfromGibraltartoAlexandriaandMalta,performingseveralrunsbeforebeingassignedtoOperationCollar,oneof35 convoystosupportMaltabetween1940and1942,on25November.AnItalianfleet—ledbythebattleshipsGiulioCesareandVittorioVeneto—wasdispatchedtointercepttheconvoy.[62]TheItalianfleetwasdetectedbyareconnaissanceaircraftfromArkRoyalandthecarrierlaunchedSwordfishtorpedobomberswhilethecapitalshipsofForceHturnedtomeettheenemy.[63]Duringtheengagement,theBattleofCapeSpartivento,theItaliandestroyerLancierewasdamaged,althoughitisuncertainiftorpedoesfromthebombersorBritishgunfirewereresponsible.TheBritishmistookLanciereforacruiser,whiletheItaliancommandersreceivedincorrectreportsthatthecruiserBolzanohadbeenhit.[64]BritishattacksfailedtodamageanyotherItalianshipsorsinkthedisableddestroyer,andaretaliatoryattackbytheItalianairforcesawArkRoyalasthesubjectofmultiplebombingruns,noneofwhichhit.[64]Thebattlehadnoclearresult,althoughtheBritishconvoyreacheditsdestinationunscathed.[65] On14December1940,ArkRoyalandForceHwereredeployedfromGibraltartotheAtlantictosearchtheAzoresforcommerceraiders.ArkRoyalreturnedtotheMediterraneanon20December,andescortedthebattleshipMalayaandmerchantshipsfromMaltauntil27December.[66]ForceHthenbecameinvolvedinOperationExcess,aplantomoveconvoysthroughtheMediterraneantosupporttheWesternDesertForce,whichwastryingtopushItalianlandforcesfromEgyptintoLibya.Overthenextmonth,BritishcontroloftheMediterraneantheatrewasweakened,particularlybytheentryoftheLuftwaffeandthenear-lossoftheaircraftcarrierIllustrious.[67]TheMediterraneanFleetwasunderpressurefromAxisforcesintheEasternMediterranean,whiletheBritishportatGibraltarwaslikelytobelostiftheSpanishchosetoallywiththeGermansinsteadofremainingoutofthewar.TorelievetheMediterraneanFleet,whiledemonstratingBritishstrengthtotheSpanish,theAdmiraltyandAdmiralCunninghamplannedtouseArkRoyal'sSwordfishbombersinraidsagainstItaliantargets,supportedbybombardmentfromheavyfleetunits.Thefirstbombing,on2JanuaryagainsttheTirsoDaminSardinia,wasunsuccessful,[68]butArkRoyal'sSwordfishbombersweremoresuccessfulon6January,whentheybombedtheportcityofGenoa.Thecarrier'saircraftalsocoveredthebattlecruiserRenownandbattleshipMalayawhiletheyshelledtheport.On9January,ArkRoyallaunchedaircrafttobombanoilrefineryatLaSpezia,andtolayminesintheharbour.Bothoperationsweresuccessful.[69] SearchingforScharnhorstandGneisenau[edit] InearlyFebruary1941,thebattleshipsScharnhorstandGneisenauheadedintotheAtlanticduringOperationBerlinontheordersofGrandAdmiralErichRaeder,commanderoftheGermanNavy.TheyweretodisruptAlliedshippinganddrawcapitalshipsfromotherareas.On8March,ForceHandArkRoyalwereorderedtotheCanaryIslandstosearchforthebattleships,andtocoverconvoyscrossingfromtheUnitedStates.[70]ArkRoyalusedheraircrafttosearchforcapturedshipsreturningtoGermanyunderthecontrolofprizecrews.Threeshipswerelocatedon19March:twoscuttledthemselves,whilethethird—SSPolykarp—reachedFrance.[71] Ontheeveningof21March1941aFaireyFulmarfromArkRoyalstumbledacrossScharnhorstandGneisenauatsea.Becauseofaradiomalfunction,thecrewhadtoreturntoArkRoyaltoreport,bywhichtimetheGermanshipshadescapedunderfog.[72]Thenextday,ArkRoyalre-establishedairpatrolsinthehopeofre-locatingtheraiders.Duringtheday,acatapultmalfunctiondestroyedaFaireySwordfish;flingingthefuselageintotheseaaheadofthecarrier.Unabletostop,ArkRoyalranovertheSwordfishandwasoverheadwhentheaircraft'sdepthchargesdetonated.[73]ScharnhorstandGneisenaureachedBrestwithoutBritishharassment,whileArkRoyalreturnedtoGibraltarforrepairs,arrivingon24March.[74] MaltaconvoysandOperationTiger[edit] ArkRoyalatseawiththebattlecruiserRenown Anintenseanti-aircraftbarrageisvisibleduringanattackbyItaliantorpedobombersonForceH.ArkRoyalisontheleft,withanItalianaircraftoverherbows,andHMSRenowntotheright. ArkRoyalspentAprilalternatingbetweencoveringconvoysanddeliveringaircrafttoMaltaandforaysintotheAtlantictohuntcommerceraiders.ByMay1941,ErwinRommel'sAfrikaKorpsweredrivingthroughNorthAfricatowardstheSuezCanal,pushingtheWesternDesertForcebeforethem.WithBritishforcesclosetocollapseandstrategiclocationsthreatened,theBritishHighCommandriskedsendingareinforcementconvoyacrosstheMediterraneantoAlexandria.Theconvoyconsistedoffivelargetransportships,escortedbyArkRoyal,thebattlecruiserRenown,thebattleshipQueenElizabeth,thecruisersSheffield,Naiad,Fiji,andGloucester,andscreenedbydestroyersofthe5thDestroyerFlotilla.[75]PriortoArkRoyal'sdeparture,CaptainHollandlefttorecuperatefromstressandpoorhealth,andwasreplacedbyCaptainLobenMaund.[76]TheconvoyleftGibraltaron6May,andwasdetectedbyItalianaircraft.Theconvoy—limitedto14knots(26 km/h;16 mph)andescortedbysomanycapitalships—wassuchatemptingtargetthatItalianandGermanaircraftweremobilised.[77] TheBritishconvoycameunderairattackon8May,firstbytheItalianairforce,thentheGermanLuftwaffe.Overtheday,12ofArkRoyal'sFaireyFulmars(themaximumnumberavailable)droveoffover50aircraft,withtheassistanceoftargetinginformationfromSheffield'sradarandanti-aircraftfirefromtheescorts.[78][79]Duringtheinitialwaves,oneFulmarwaslost,killingFlightLieutenantRupertTillardandLieutenantMarkSomerville;anotherwasdestroyedwiththeaircrewrecovered,whileseveralothersweredamaged.[80]Consequently,onlysevenwereabletofacethemainLuftwaffeforceof34aircraft,whileanattackjustbeforedarkwasdrivenoffbytwoaircraftandheavyfirefromtheships.[80]Theconvoysurvivedwithoutseriousdamage:theonlycasualtiesweretomines,withtheEmpireSongsunkandNewZealandStardamagedbutabletoreachport.[81]ArkRoyalunderwentanotheraerialattackon12May,duringherreturntoGibraltar.Laterthatmonth,sheandfellowaircraftcarrierFuriousdeliveredHawkerHurricanestosupportMalta.[82] HuntingtheBismarck[edit] Seealso:LastbattleofthebattleshipBismarck On18May1941,theGermanbattleshipBismarckandheavycruiserPrinzEugenbeganOperationRheinübungbybreakingintotheAtlantictoraidshipping.AftersinkingthebattlecruiserHoodanddamagingthebattleshipPrinceofWalesduringtheBattleoftheDenmarkStrait,BismarckshookoffherpursuersandheadedfortheFrenchAtlanticcoast.[83]ArkRoyal,Renown,andSheffield—accompaniedbyFaulknor,Foresight,Forester,Fortune,Foxhound,andFury—weredispatchedtotheAtlanticon23Maytosearchforthebattleship.[84]On26May,aSwordfishfromArkRoyallocatedBismarckandbegantoshadowher,whiletheHomeFleetwasmobilisedtopursue.[85] OneofArkRoyal'sFaireySwordfishreturnsatlowlevelovertheseaaftermakingatorpedoattackonBismarck Atthetimeofdetection,theBritishshipswere130nauticalmiles(240 km;150 mi)awayandwouldnotcatchBismarckbeforeshereachedSaint-Nazaire,puttinghersafelyundertheaircoveroftheLuftwaffeonceinrangeandwhilebeingrepairedattheNormandiedrydock.FifteenSwordfishbomberswerearmedwithtorpedoesandsenttodelaytheship.Sheffield,alsoshadowingBismarck,wasbetweenArkRoyalandBismarck.TheaircraftmistooktheBritishcruiserfortheirtargetandfiredtorpedoes.Thetorpedoeswerefittedwithunreliablemagneticdetonators,whichcausedmosttoexplodeoncontactwiththewater,whileSheffieldevadedtherest.[86]Afterrealisinghismistake,oneofthepilotssignalled'Sorryforthekipper'toSheffield.[87] Onreturntothecarrier,theSwordfishwerere-armedwithcontact-detonatorwarheadtorpedoes,andlaunchedat19:15forasecondattack;locatingandattackingBismarckjustbeforesunset.Threetorpedoeshitthebattleship:twodetonatedforwardoftheenginerooms,whilethethirdstruckthestarboardsteeringcompartmentandjammedherrudderina15°portturn.[88]Bismarckwasforcedtosailincirclesuntilacombinationofalternatingpropellerspeedswasfoundwhichwouldkeepheronareasonablysteadycoursewhich,intheprevailingforce8windandseastate,forcedhertosailtowardstheBritishwarshipswithalmostnomanoeuvringcapability.[89]TheGermanbattleshipsufferedheavyattackduringthenightof26–27May,andsankat10:39 hourson27May.[90] EscortingtheMaltaconvoys[edit] SixBlackburnSkuasofNo.800SquadronFleetAirArmlinedupondeckbeforetakingoff ArkRoyalandtheshipsofForceHreturnedtoGibraltaron29May1941.DespitetheboostinAlliedmoralefromthesinkingofthebattleshipBismarck,thewarintheMediterraneanwasgoingagainsttheAllies.GreeceandCretehadfallentotheAxisPowers,andtheAfrikaKorpswaspreparingtolaunchafinalpushintoEgypt.MaltaremainedanimportantstrongholdintheMediterranean,butwascomingunderincreasedpressurefromItalianandGermanairattacks,andcouldnolongerbesuppliedfromtheeastsincethefallofCrete.[91] ArkRoyalwaspressedintoservice,deliveringaircrafttoMaltaduringseveralsupplyrunsthroughoutJuneandJuly,andescortingtheconvoysofOperationSubstanceinJulyandOperationHalberdinSeptember.Despitesomelosses,theconvoyssucceededinkeepingMaltasuppliedandfighting.[92]ThecontinuedAlliedpresenceinMaltawasaconsiderableproblemforRommelinAfrica,whowaslosingasmuchas⅓ofhissuppliesfromItalytosubmarinesandbombersbasedthere.[93]AdolfHitlerdecidedtosendaflotillaofU-boatsintotheMediterraneantoattackAlliedshipping,againsttheadviceofGroßadmiralRaeder.[93] Finalvoyageandsinking[edit] On10November1941,ArkRoyalferriedmoreaircrafttoMaltabeforereturningtoGibraltar.AdmiralSomervillehadbeenwarnedofU-boatsofftheSpanishcoast,andremindedForceHtobevigilant.[94]AlsoatseawasFriedrichGuggenberger'sU-81,whichhadreceivedareportthatForceHwasreturningtoGibraltar.[93] On13November,at15:40,thesonaroperatoraboardthedestroyerLegiondetectedanunidentifiedsound,butassumeditwasthepropellersofanearbydestroyer.Oneminutelater,ArkRoyalwasstruckamidshipsbyatorpedo,[95]betweenthefuelbunkersandbombstore,anddirectlybelowthebridgeisland.[96]TheexplosioncausedArkRoyaltoshake,hurledloadedtorpedo-bombersintotheair,andkilled44yearoldAbleSeamanEdwardMitchell,theonlymantodieinthesinking.[96]Thetorpedopuncheda130 ft× 30 ft(40 m× 9 m)holeintheship'sbottomandstarboardsidebelowthewater-lineafterrunningdeepandhittingthebilgekeel,inboardofthesideprotectionsystem.[97]Thehitcausedfloodingofthestarboardboilerroom,mainswitchboard,oiltanks,andover106feet(32 m)oftheship'sstarboardbilge.Theexplosionknockedoutallinternalcommunicationsandthestarboardpowertrain,causingtherearhalfoftheshiptolosepower.[98] LegionmovingalongsidethedamagedandlistingArkRoyaltotakeoffsurvivors Immediatelyafterthetorpedostrike,CaptainMaundorderedtheenginestofullstop,butwiththecommunicationsknockedouthadtosendarunnertotheengineroom.[99]Theship'scontinuedmotionenlargedtheholeinthehull,andbythetimeArkRoyalstoppedshehadtakenonagreatdealofwaterandbeguntolisttostarboard,reaching18°fromcentrewithin20 minutes.[99]Consideringthelistofthecarrier,andthefactthatothercarriers,includingCourageousandGlorious,hadsunkrapidlywithheavylossoflife,Maundgavetheordertoabandonship.ThecrewwereassembledontheflightdecktodeterminewhowouldremainonboardtotrytosavetheshipwhileLegioncamealongsidetotakeofftherest.Asaresult,comprehensivedamagecontrolmeasureswerenotinitiateduntil49 minutesaftertheattack.Thefloodingspreadunchecked,exacerbatedbycoversandhatchesleftopenduringevacuationofthelowerdecks.[100] Waterspreadtothecentrelineboilerroom,whichstartedtofloodfrombelow,andpowerwaslostshipwidewhentheboileruptakesbecamechoked;ArkRoyalhadnobackupdieselgenerators.[101]Abouthalfanhouraftertheexplosion,thecarrierappearedtostabilise.AdmiralSomerville,determinedtosaveArkRoyal,ordereddamagecontrolpartiesbacktothecarrierbeforetakingthebattleshipMalayatoGibraltartoorganisesalvageefforts.Thedamagecontrolpartiesre-litaboiler,restoringpowertothebilgepumps.ThedestroyerLaforeycamealongsidetoprovidepowerandadditionalpumps,whileSwordfishaircraftfromGibraltarflewoverheadtosupplementanti-submarinepatrols.[102]ThetugThamesarrivedfromGibraltarat20:00andattachedatowlinetoArkRoyal,butthefloodinghadcausedtheshiptolistmoreseverely.Risingwaterreachedtheboilerroomfanflat,anuninterruptedcompartmentrunningthewidthoftheship.Thisforcedtheshutdownoftherestoredboiler.[103] Anotherphotographshowingthedegreeofthelist Thelistreached20°between02:05and02:30,andwhen'abandonship'wasdeclaredagainat04:00,hadreached27°.[104]ArkRoyal'scomplementhadbeenevacuatedtoLegionby04:30;withtheexceptionofMitchell,therewerenofatalities.The1,487officersandcrewweretransportedtoGibraltar.[105]Thelistreached45°beforeArkRoyalcapsizedandsankat06:19on14November.[106]Witnessesreportedthecarrierrollingto90°,wheresheremainedforthreeminutesbeforeinverting.ArkRoyalthenbrokeintwo,theaftsinkingwithinacoupleofminutes,followedbythebow.[107] Investigation[edit] ABoardofInquirywasestablishedtoinvestigatetheloss.Basedonitsfindings,CaptainLobenMaundwascourt-martialledinFebruary1942.Hewasfoundguiltyontwocountsofnegligence:oneoffailingtoensurethatproperlyconstituteddamagecontrolpartieshadremainedonboardafterthegeneralevacuation,andoneoffailingtoensuretheshipwasinasufficientstateofreadinesstodealwithpossibledamage.[108]TheboardtemperedtheirjudgementwithanacknowledgementthatahighstandardwasbeingexpectedofMaund,andthathewasprimarilyconcernedwiththewelfareofhiscrew.[108] TheBucknillCommittee,whichhadbeensetuptoinvestigatethelossofmajorwarships,alsoproducedareport.Thisreportsaidthatthelackofbackuppowersourceswasamajordesignfailure,whichcontributedtotheloss:ArkRoyaldependedonelectricityformuchofheroperation,andoncetheboilersandsteam-drivendynamoswereknockedout,thelossofpowermadedamagecontroldifficult.Thecommitteerecommendedthedesignofthebulkheadsandboilerintakesbeimprovedtodecreasetheriskofwidespreadfloodinginboilerroomsandmachinespaces,whiletheuninterruptedboilerroomflatwascriticised.ThedesignflawswererectifiedintheIllustrious-andImplacable-classcarriers,underconstructionatthetime.[109][110] TheBoardofInquirycloseditsreportwiththeobservationthatArkRoyalhadsunk22nauticalmiles(25 mi;41 km)eastofEuropaPoint,thesouthernmosttipofGibraltar.Thiswasacceptedasthewrecklocationfor60years.[111] Rediscovery[edit] Thelocationofthewreckwasundetermineduntilmid-December2002,whenthewreckwasdiscoveredbyanunderwatersurveycompany,C&CTechnologies,Inc,usingasonar-equippedautonomousunderwatervehicle,30nauticalmiles(35 mi;56 km)fromGibraltar,atabout3,300feet(1,000 m)depth.[112][113]ThecompanyhadbeencontractedbytheBBCaspartofadocumentaryonmaritimearchaeologyrelatedtomajorbattlesoftheRoyalNavy.[113]TheArkRoyalwreckliesintwomainpieceswiththesternsectionsittinguprightandthebowsectionupsidedown.66feet(20 m)ofthebowisseparatedfromtherestoftheship'shull.Alargedebrisfield,whichincludesthefunnelandbridgeisland,partsoftheshipthatcamelooseasthecarriersank,andaircraftfromthehangars,liesbetweenthetwohullsections.Analysisrevealedthattheportsideoftheshiphittheseabedfirst.[114] Thewreckwasfoundfurthereastthanexpected.ResearchersoriginallythoughtthewreckhadbeencarriedbycurrentsfartherintotheMediterraneanasshesank—thattheshiphadtravelledeastwardsunderwaterbeforereachingtheseabed.[115]Thepresencenearthehullpiecesofotherdebris,includingaSwordfishbomberthatwastippedofftheflightdeckbeforetheshiprolled,provedthisfalse.Ifthecurrenthadpushedthehullpiecesanysignificantdistancesidewaysastheysank,debriswouldhavebeenspreadoveramuchwiderarea.ItseemsthoughthateastwardcurrentshadaffectedherprogresstowardsGibraltarduringthetimeshewasundertow.[116] Studyofthewreckalsoshowedthatrestartingtheenginestoprovidepowerincreasedthestressesplacedonthehull,addingtotheflooding.Oncepowerwasthenlost,itwasimpossibletopreventtheshipfromsinking—herfatewasmoretheresultofdesignflawsthanoftheactionsofhercaptain.[116] Notes[edit] a.^TheWashingtonNavalTreaty(signedinFebruary1922)imposedalimitof135,000 tonsontotalBritishaircraftcarriertonnage,withnooneshipallowedtoexceed33,000 tons,andonlytwotoexceed27,000 tons.[117]TheLondonNavalTreaty(signedinApril1930)preventedsignatoriesfromconstructingnewcapitalships,orconvertingexistingcapitalshipsintoaircraftcarriers,until1937.[118] Citations[edit] ^DavidAThomas,"BattlesandHonoursoftheRoyalNavy"Kindleedition ^abFriedman,BritishCarrierAviation,AppendixA.ArkRoyalenteredservicewithfour8-barrelledmountings,butbyOctober1941allsixmountingswereinplace. ^abcdRossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 43–44. ^abcdefBishop&Chant.Aircraftcarriers.p. 45. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 48–51. ^Friedman.Whentheflightdeckbecomesthestrengthdeck,theaircrafthangarsarethenenclosedwithinthehullstructure.Theterms,'enclosed'and'open'hangarsdonot,strictlyspeaking,refertoahangarthatisclosedoropenonthesides,butrathertowhetherthehangaris,respectively,beloworabovethestrengthdeck. ^Friedman.Theflightdeckwasdesignedwith.75inofDucolsteel.Theenclosedhangardesignrequiredadeckofapproximatelythisthicknesstoensureadequatehullintegrity,sothelimitedarmourprotectionwasaby-productoftheenclosedhangardesign.Thestrengthdeckisdesignedtocarrystructuralloadingincombinationwiththehullgirderandsideandbottomplating.Ship'sstructureabovethestrengthdeckistermed'superstructure'.Ducolsteelwasanadvancedtypeofhightensilesteelwhichhadgreatstrengthandwasoftenusedtoprovidearmourforsplinterprotection. ^abJameson.ArkRoyal.p. 16. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 48–49. ^Garzke.AlliedBattleships.pp. 364–365. ^Friedman.BritishCarrierAviation.p. 121. ^abcdefghijMason."HMSArkRoyal–FleetAircraftCarrier".Archivedfromtheoriginalon29September2016. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 47. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 45. ^UKRetailPriceIndexinflationfiguresarebasedondatafromClark,Gregory(2017)."TheAnnualRPIandAverageEarningsforBritain,1209toPresent(NewSeries)".MeasuringWorth.Retrieved11June2022. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 45–46. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 46. ^abColledge&Warlow.ShipsoftheRoyalNavy.p. 21. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 41. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 61–62. ^Friedman,p.123 ^abWestwood.FightingShipsofWorldWarII.p. 66. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 47. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 47–48. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 112. ^Brown;et al.CarrierOperations.p. 15. ^abEdwards.DönitzandtheWolfPacks.p. 18. ^abcdRossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 74–77. ^abcdeRossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 75–78. ^abcEdwards.Dönitzandthewolfpacks.p. 87. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 81. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 82. ^Bekker.TheLuftwaffeWarDiaries.pp. 75–76. ^abcRossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 84–85. ^Balfour.PropagandainWar1939–1945.pp. 158–159. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 88–89. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 53. ^Mitchell.TheEmpireShips.p. 431. ^abJameson.ArkRoyal.p. 42. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 94–96. ^abcRossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 99. ^abJameson.ArkRoyal.p. 97. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 117. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 119. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 120–121. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 137. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 140–141. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 128. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 154. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 132. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 136. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 138. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 170. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 179. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 180. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 185–187. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 192–193. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 190. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 212–15. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 222–225. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 192. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 230. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 236–258. ^abJameson.ArkRoyal.p. 239. ^O'Hara.Struggle.pp. 72–74. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 210. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 218–219. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 222–226. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 228–230. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 259–260. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 260. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 260–262. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 242. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 243. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 268–269. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 266. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 269. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 271–274. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 258. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 249. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 274. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 276–277. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 279–290. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 294. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 296. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 299–300. ^Stephen.SeaBattles.p. 90. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 303–305. ^Garzke.AxisBattleships.pp. 235–236. ^Williamson.GermanBattleships.pp. 33–34. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 316–317. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 318. ^abcRossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 327. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 337. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 329. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 332. ^Friedman.BritishCarrierAviation.p. 126. ^Paterson.U-Boats.p. 38. ^abJameson.ArkRoyal.p. 338. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 338–340. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 345. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 342. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.pp. 343–345. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 346. ^Duffy.TargetAmerica.p. 136. ^Jameson.ArkRoyal.p. 348. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 375–376. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 372–437. ^PapersofAdmiralSirHughBinney,reportsofSecondBucknillCommitteerelatingtolossofHMSPRINCEOFWALESandHMSARKROYAL,1941–1942,heldatLiddellHartCentreforMilitaryArchives,King'sCollegeLondon ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 374. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 30. ^Warren,Daniel;Church,Robert;Davey,Rick(September2004)."DiscoveringH.M.S.ArkRoyal"(PDF).HydroInternational.Retrieved10August2016. ^ab"FilmteamfindswreckofArkRoyal".BBCNews.19December2002. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 368–369. ^Rossiter.ArkRoyal.pp. 168–169. ^abRossiter.ArkRoyal.p. 377. ^PapersRelatingtotheForeignRelationsoftheUnitedStates.pp. 247–66. ^ReproducedinGoldman.Sunkentreaties.pp. 307–19. References[edit] Books[edit] Balfour,Michael(1979).PropagandainWar1939–1945:Organisation,PoliciesandPublicsinBritainandGermany.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.ISBN 0-7100-0193-2.OCLC 5373844. Bekker,Cajus(1969).TheLuftwaffeWarDiaries.Zielger,Frank(trans.).London:Corgi.ISBN 0-552-08236-8.OCLC 30270475. Bishop,Chris;Chant,Christopher(2004).AircraftCarriers:TheWorld'sGreatestNavalVesselsandTheirAircraft.GrandRapids,MI:Zenith.ISBN 0-7603-2005-5.OCLC 56646560.Retrieved22July2008. Brown,David;Brown,J.D.;Hobbs,David(2009).CarrierOperationsinWorldWarII.Annapolis,Maryland:NavalInstitutePress.ISBN 978-1-59114-108-2. Chesneau,Roger(1984).AircraftCarriersoftheWorld,1914tothePresent:AnIllustratedEncyclopedia.Annapolis,Maryland:NavalInstitutePress.ISBN 0-87021-902-2.OCLC 11018793. Colledge,J.J.;Warlow,Ben(2006)[1969].ShipsoftheRoyalNavy:TheCompleteRecordofallFightingShipsoftheRoyalNavy(Rev. ed.).London:ChathamPublishing.ISBN 978-1-86176-281-8. Duffy,JamesP.(2006)[2004].TargetAmerica:Hitler'sPlantoAttacktheUnitedStates(3rd ed.).NewYork:Lyons.ISBN 1-59228-934-7.OCLC 70264388. Edwards,Bernard(1999)[1996].DönitzandtheWolfPacks:theU-boatsatwar(2nd ed.).London:Cassell.ISBN 0-304-35203-9.OCLC 41465151. Friedman,Norman(1988).BritishCarrierAviation:TheEvolutionoftheShipsandtheirAircraft.Annapolis,Maryland:NavalInstitutePress.ISBN 0-87021-054-8. Garzke,William;JohnDulin(1990).Battleships:AxisandNeutralBattleshipsinWorldWarII.Annapolis,Maryland:NavalInstitutePress.ISBN 978-0-87021-101-0. Garzke,WilliamH.;DulinJr.,RobertO.;Webb,ThomasG.(1980).AlliedBattleshipsinWorldWarII.NavalInstitutePress.ISBN 0-87021-100-5. Goldman,EmilyO.(1994).SunkenTreaties:NavalArmsControlBetweentheWars.UniversityPark,PA:PennsylvaniaStateUniversity.ISBN 0-271-01034-7.OCLC 28723444. Jameson,William(1April2004)[1957].ArkRoyal:TheLifeofanAircraftCarrieratWar1939–41(2nd ed.).PeriscopePublishing.ISBN 1-904381-27-8. Lenton,H.T.(1998).BritishandEmpireWarshipsoftheSecondWorldWar.London:GreenhillBooks.ISBN 1-85367-277-7. Mitchell,WilliamHarry;Sawyer,LeonardArthur(1990).TheEmpireShips:ARecordofBritish-builtandAcquiredMerchantShipsDuringtheSecondWorldWar.Lloyd'sofLondonPress.ISBN 1-85044-275-4. O'Hara,Vincent(2009).StrugglefortheMiddleSea.Vol. 1.Annapolis,MD:NavalInstitutePress.ISBN 978-1-59114-648-3. "ConferenceontheLimitationofArmament".PapersRelatingtotheForeignRelationsoftheUnitedStates.Vol. I.Washington:USG.P.O.1922.pp. 247–66.OCLC 24045525.Retrieved4June2010. Paterson,Lawrence(2007).U-boatsintheMediterranean,1941–1944.Annapolis,Maryland:NavalInstitutePress.ISBN 978-1-59114-893-7. Poolman,Kenneth(1956).ArkRoyal:WmKimber&CoLtd. Rossiter,Mike(2007)[2006].ArkRoyal:TheLife,DeathandRediscoveryoftheLegendarySecondWorldWarAircraftCarrier(2nd ed.).London:CorgiBooks.ISBN 978-0-552-15369-0.OCLC 81453068. Sullivan,DavidM.&Sturton,Ian(2010)."ExtraordinaryViewsofHMSGloriousandHMSArkRoyal".WarshipInternational.XLVII(3):257–62.ISSN 0043-0374. Stephen,Martin(1988).SeaBattlesinClose-Up:WorldWar2.Vol. 1.Annapolis,Maryland:NavalInstitutePress.ISBN 0-87021-556-6. Westwood,J.N.(1975)[1971].FightingShipsofWorldWarII.London:SidgwickandJackson(forBookClubAssociates).ISBN 0-283-98287-X.OCLC 2090062. Williamson,Gordon(2003).GermanBattleships1939–45.Oxford:OspreyPublishing.ISBN 978-1-84176-498-6. Websites[edit] "FilmteamfindswreckofArkRoyal".BBCNews.BBC.19December2002.Retrieved4June2010. Mason,GeoffreyB.(2003)."HMSArkRoyal–FleetAircraftCarrier".ServiceHistoriesofRoyalNavyWarshipsinWorldWar2.Naval-History.Net.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7April2010.Retrieved4June2010. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedto: HMSArkRoyal(91)(category) HMSArkRoyal–OperationalHistoryandPhotos VideoofHMSArkRoyalengaginghighlevelbomberswithherAAarmament PictureofArkRoyalsinkingwithSwordfishondeck. vteBritishnavalshipclassesoftheSecondWorldWarAircraftcarriers Courageous Eagle ArkRoyal Illustrious Implacable AudaciousC MaltaX Lightaircraftcarriers Argus Hermes Unicorn Colossus MajesticC CentaurC Escortcarriers ArcherAV AudacityV AvengerAV AttackerA RulerA ActivityV PretoriaCastleV NairanaV Battleships QueenElizabeth Revenge Nelson KingGeorgeV LionX VanguardC Battlecruisers Renown Hood Heavycruisers Hawkins County York Lightcruisers C Danae Emerald Leander Arethusa Town Dido Fiji Minotaur NeptuneX Minotaur(1947)X Destroyerleaders Thornycrofttype(Shakespeare) Admiraltytype(Scott) Destroyers R S V&W TownA Ambuscade Amazon A&B C&D E&F G&H I Tribal J,K&N Hunt L&M O&P Q&R S&T U&V W&Z C Battle WeaponC GX DaringC,P Frigates River CaptainA ColonyA Loch Bay Corvettes Flower Castle Sloops 24 Bridgewater Hastings BanffA Shoreham Grimsby Kingfisher Bittern Egret BlackSwan Minelayers Adventure Abdiel Plover Linnet M AgamemnonV MenestheusV PortNapierV PortQuebecV SouthernPrinceV TeviotBankV Minesweepers Hunt Halcyon Bangor MMS AukA Algerine Cybele Netlayers Guardian Protector Bar Net Submarines H L Odin Parthian Rainbow S River Grampus T U P611 V Amphion X XE Coastal HarbourDefenceMotorLaunch FairmileBmotorlaunch MotorTorpedoBoat MotorGunBoat SteamGunBoat Insect-classgunboat Dragonfly-classrivergunboat TypeTwo63ftHSL Other Trawlers Isles Portuguese Tree Dance Shakespearian RoundTable Monitors Erebus Roberts Seaplanecarriers Pegasus Albatross Merchantaircraftcarriers Fightercatapultships Armedmerchantcruisers Oceanboardingvessels A Americanbuilt X Cancelled C Completedafterthewar C,P Laiddownandcompletedafterthewar V Conversions vteU-boats AtlanticU-boatcampaignofWorldWarI BattleoftheAtlantic(WorldWarII) Mediterranean(WorldWarI) Mediterranean(WorldWarII) OperationRegenbogen OperationDeadlight U-boatlists German Types Mostsuccessful Foreigncaptured Neverdeployed Uncompletedprojects Austro-Hungarian Classes Commanders BdU FdU WorldWarIcommanders WorldWarIIcommanders Knight'sCrossrecipients ErichRaeder KarlDönitz Wolfpacks ListofwolfpacksofWorldWarII Blücher Borkum DelphinII Dränger Eisbär Eisteufel Endrass Hai Hartmann Hecht Kiebitz Kreuzotter Leuthen Lohs Pfadfinder Pfeil Prien Raubgraf Rösing Rossbach Schill Schlieffen Seewolf Steinbrinck Siegfried Streitaxt Tümmler Vorwärts Weddigen West Wolf Majorengagements ConvoySC7 ConvoyPQ17 BattleoftheSt.Lawrence ConvoyONS5 BlackMay Bismarckchase U-boatflotillasWorldWarI I II III IV Flanders Kurland Pola Constantinople WorldWarII Regions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. CapitalshipssunkWorldWarI HMS Britannia HMS Cornwallis Frenchbattleship Danton HMS Formidable Gaulois Russianbattleship Peresvet HMS Majestic Italianbattleship ReginaMargherita HMS Russell Frenchbattleship Suffren HMS Triumph WorldWarII HMS ArkRoyal HMS Barham HMS Courageous HMS Eagle HMS RoyalOak Technology Anechoictile Depthcharge Elektroboot FuG200Hohentwiel Hedgehog Leighlight Mark24mine Metoxradardetector Mousetrap Pillenwerfer Q-ship Sieglinde(decoy) Sonar Snorkel Concepts Submarinewarfare Intensifiedsubmarinewarfare Unrestrictedsubmarinewarfare RocketU-boat BasesWorldWarII France Lorient Saint-Nazaire Germany Valentin Norway DoraI DoraII vteShipwrecksandmaritimeincidentsinNovember1941Shipwrecks 2Nov:Voroshilov 3Nov:Flynderborg 4Nov:Smetlivy 5Nov:EmpireEnergy 7Nov:Armenia,Nottingham 9Nov:Ungvár 11Nov:U-580 13Nov:HMS ArkRoyal,ChervonaUkraina 14Nov:EmpireDefender 15Nov:U-583 16Nov:U-433 19Nov:Kormoran,HMAS Sydney 22Nov:Atlantis,EmpireDorado 24Nov:HMS Dunedin,Hercules 25Nov:HMS Barham 27Nov:HMAS Parramatta, 28Nov:U-95 29Nov:Fiddown Unknowndate:Proteus,U-206 Otherincidents 12Nov:Leningrad 15Nov:U-153 20Nov:EmpireDorado 194019411942October1941December1941 Portals: UnitedKingdom War WorldWarII Coordinates:36°3′N4°45′W/36.050°N4.750°W/36.050;-4.750 Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Ark_Royal_(91)&oldid=1106472663" Categories:1937shipsAircraftcarriersoftheRoyalNavyMaritimeincidentsinNovember1941ShipsbuiltontheRiverMerseyShipssunkbyGermansubmarinesinWorldWarIIWorldWarIIaircraftcarriersoftheUnitedKingdomWorldWarIIshipwrecksintheMediterraneanSea2002archaeologicaldiscoveriesHiddencategories:ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataUseBritishEnglishfromApril2016UsedmydatesfromApril2016CoordinatesonWikidataFeaturedarticles Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةCatalàČeštinaDeutschEspañolفارسیFrançaisBahasaIndonesiaItalianoJawaLëtzebuergeschBahasaMelayu日本語NorskbokmålPolskiPortuguêsРусскийSlovenčinaSuomiSvenskaไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаTiếngViệt中文 Editlinks