crime | Definition, History, Examples, Types, Classification ...

crime, the intentional commission of an act usually deemed socially harmful or dangerous and specifically defined, prohibited, ... crime TableofContents crime IntroductionTheconceptofcrime:criminalcodesCommonlawCivillawIslamiclawAfricaChinaGeneralprinciplesofcriminallawRuleagainstretroactivityIntentionCriminalresponsibilityClassificationofcrimesMeasurementofcrimeCharacteristicsofoffendersGenderpatternsAgepatternsSocial-classpatternsRacialpatternsCharacteristicsofvictimsTheoriesofcausationDetectionofcrimeTheroleofforensicscienceSuspectidentificationGatheringevidenceInterrogationandconfessionThecourtsystemAnglo-AmericancountriesThedecisiontoprosecuteTrialprocedureSentencingContinentalEuropeRussiaIslamiccountriesAfricaChinaCrimeandsocialpolicy FastFacts 2-MinSummary RelatedContent Quizzes Media Images More MoreArticlesOnThisTopic AdditionalReading Contributors ArticleHistory Home Politics,Law&Government Law,Crime&Punishment crime law Actions Cite verifiedCite Whileeveryefforthasbeenmadetofollowcitationstylerules,theremaybesomediscrepancies. 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ExternalWebsites PublicBroadcastingService-CONSTITUTIONUSA-CrimeandPunishment BritannicaWebsites ArticlesfromBritannicaEncyclopediasforelementaryandhighschoolstudents. crime-Children'sEncyclopedia(Ages8-11) crime-StudentEncyclopedia(Ages11andup) Print print Print Pleaseselectwhichsectionsyouwouldliketoprint: TableOfContents Cite verifiedCite Whileeveryefforthasbeenmadetofollowcitationstylerules,theremaybesomediscrepancies. Pleaserefertotheappropriatestylemanualorothersourcesifyouhaveanyquestions. SelectCitationStyle MLA APA ChicagoManualofStyle CopyCitation Share Share Sharetosocialmedia Facebook Twitter URL https://www.britannica.com/topic/crime-law Feedback ExternalWebsites Feedback Corrections?Updates?Omissions?Letusknowifyouhavesuggestionstoimprovethisarticle(requireslogin). 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ExternalWebsites PublicBroadcastingService-CONSTITUTIONUSA-CrimeandPunishment BritannicaWebsites ArticlesfromBritannicaEncyclopediasforelementaryandhighschoolstudents. crime-Children'sEncyclopedia(Ages8-11) crime-StudentEncyclopedia(Ages11andup) By IanDavidEdge SeeAll • LastUpdated: Aug1,2022 • EditHistory TableofContents policeofficer:collectingfingerprints Seeallmedia KeyPeople: RichardRamirez RichardKuklinski CarlosLehder JohnduPont RichardIII ...(Showmore) RelatedTopics: cybercrime terrorism obscenity warcrime obstructionofjustice ...(Showmore) Seeallrelatedcontent→ Summary Readabriefsummaryofthistopic crime,theintentionalcommissionofanactusuallydeemedsociallyharmfulordangerousandspecificallydefined,prohibited,andpunishableundercriminallaw.Mostcountrieshaveenactedacriminalcodeinwhichallofthecriminallawcanbefound,thoughEnglishlaw—thesourceofmanyothercriminal-lawsystems—remainsuncodified.Thedefinitionsofparticularcrimescontainedinacodemustbeinterpretedinthelightofmanyprinciples,someofwhichmaynotactuallybeexpressedinthecodeitself.Forexample,manylegalsystemstakeintoaccountthementalstateoftheaccusedpersonatthetimetheallegedcrimewascommitted.Mostlegalsystemsalsoclassifycrimesforthepurposeofassigningcasestodifferenttypesofcourt.Socialchangesoftenresultintheadoptionofnewcriminallawsandtheobsolescenceofolderones.Thisarticlefocusesonthedefinitionandclassificationofcrime,howitismeasuredanddetected,thecharacteristicsofoffenders,andthevariousstagesofcriminalproceedings.Thematerialdrawsprincipallyfromcommon,orAnglo-American,law,withsupplementarytreatmentofcivil-lawandothersystems,includingIslamic,African,andChineselaw.Forfulltreatmentofparticularlegalaspectsofcrime,seecriminallaw;civillaw;commonlaw;court;police;andprocedurallaw.ParticularlegalsystemsaretreatedinRomanlaw;Germaniclaw;Chineselaw;Indianlaw;Sharīʿah(Islamiclaw);andSovietlaw.Aspectsrelatedtocrimearealsoaddressedincriminaljustice;criminology;juvenilejustice;parole;prison;andpunishment.Theconceptofcrime:criminalcodesCriminalbehaviourisdefinedbythelawsofparticularjurisdictions,andtherearesometimesvastdifferencesbetweenandevenwithincountriesregardingwhattypesofbehaviourareprohibited.Conductthatislawfulinonecountryorjurisdictionmaybecriminalinanother,andactivitythatamountstoatrivialinfractioninonejurisdictionmayconstituteaseriouscrimeelsewhere.Changingtimesandsocialattitudesmayleadtochangesincriminallaw,sothatbehaviourthatwasoncecriminalmaybecomelawful.Forexample,abortion,onceprohibitedexceptinthemostunusualcircumstances,isnowlawfulinmanycountries,asishomosexualbehaviourinprivatebetweenconsentingadultsinmostWesterncountries,thoughitremainsaseriousoffenseinsomepartsoftheworld.Oncecriminal,suicideandattemptedsuicidehavebeenremovedfromthescopeofcriminallawinsomejurisdictions.Indeed,intheU.S.stateofOregontheDeathwithDignityAct(passedin1997)allowsterminallyillindividualstoendtheirlivesthroughtheuseoflethalmedicationsprescribedbyaphysician.Nonetheless,thegeneraltrendhasbeentowardincreasingthescopeofcriminallawratherthandecreasingit,andithasbeenmorecommontofindthatstatutescreatenewcriminaloffensesratherthanabolishingexistingones.Newtechnologieshavegivenrisetonewopportunitiesfortheirabuse,whichhasledtothecreationofnewlegalrestrictions.Justastheinventionofthemotorvehicleledtothedevelopmentofawholebodyofcriminallawsdesignedtoregulateitsuse,sothewideninguseofcomputersandespeciallytheInternethascreatedtheneedtolegislateagainstavarietyofnewabusesandfrauds—oroldfraudscommittedinnewways. BritannicaQuiz AmericanMobstersQuiz Foralargechunkofthe1900s,theMafiahadahandinalmosteverythingintheUnitedStates,fromgamblingtopolitics.Notoriousmobstershaveinspiredpopularfilms,suchasTheGodfatherandCasino.ButhowwelldoyouknowAmericanmobsters?Takethisquiztofindout. CommonlawInmostcountries,thecriminallawiscontainedinasinglestatute,knownasthecriminal,orpenal,code.AlthoughthecriminalcodesofmostEnglish-speakingcountriesarederivedfromEnglishcriminallaw,Englanditselfhasneverhadacriminalcode.Englishcriminallawstillconsistsofacollectionofstatutesofvaryingage—theoldeststillinforcebeingtheTreasonAct(1351)—andasetofgeneralprinciplesthatarechieflyexpressedinthedecisionsofthecourts(caselaw).England’slackofacriminalcodeisnottheresultofalackofeffort;sincetheearly19thcentury,therehavebeenseveralattemptstocreatesuchacode.Thefirsteffort(1833–53)wasmadebytwopanelsofcriminal-lawcommissioners,whosystematicallysurveyedtheprevailingstateofthecriminallaw.Confrontedbyavastnumberofoftenoverlappingandinconsistentstatutes,thecommissionersfoundthatdeterminingpreciselywhatthelawprovidedonanyparticulartopicwasenormouslydifficult.Differentstatutescoveringthesameconduct,oftenwithwidelyvaryingpenalties,allowedforwidejudicialdiscretionandinconsistencyinpunishments.ThecommissionersdrewupanumberofdraftcodesthatwerepresentedtoParliament,butnonewasenacted.Eventually,owingtothejudiciary’sresistance,effortstocodifythecriminallawwereabandoned,andinsteadtherewasaconsolidationofmostofthecriminallawin1861intoanumberofstatutes—theLarcenyAct,theMaliciousDamageAct,andtheOffencesAgainstthePersonActbeingamongthemostimportant.Becausethosestatuteswereconsolidationsratherthancodifications,manyoftheinconsistenciesoftheearlierlegislationwerepreserved.TheOffencesAgainstthePersonActisstilllargelyinforce,thoughtheothershavebeenreplacedbymore-modernprovisions.InterestincodificationwasnotlimitedtoEngland.AsimilarprocessensuedinIndia,thenunderBritishrule,andacriminalcodewaswrittenduringthe1830sandeventuallyenactedin1861.ThecoderemainssubstantiallyinforceinIndia,aswellasinPakistan.CertainpartsofAfricathatwereonceBritishcoloniesalsoadoptedsimilarcodes. GetaBritannicaPremiumsubscriptionandgainaccesstoexclusivecontent. SubscribeNow InEngland,effortstoestablishacriminalcoderesumedinthelate1870s,andin1879–80adraftcriminalcodebillwasagainpresentedtoParliament.LargelytheworkofthecelebratedlegalauthorandjudgeJamesFitzjamesStephen,thiscodereceivedwidespreadpublicitythroughoutEnglandanditscolonialpossessions.AlthoughitwasnotadoptedinEngland,itwassubsequentlyenactedinCanada(1892)andinseveralAustralianstatesandBritishcolonies.Asinterestincodificationdeclinedinthe20thcentury,attemptsweremadetomakespecificandparticularchangesincriminallaws.ThepermanentCriminalLawRevisionCommittee,establishedin1959,eventuallymadeavarietyofspecificrecommendations,includingtheeliminationofthedistinctionbetweenfeloniesandmisdemeanours.Inaddition,theLawCommission,alsoapermanentbody,wasestablishedin1965withthegoalofcontinuallyreviewingtheentirelaw,notjustthecriminallaw.In1981thecommissionundertookanewattemptatcodificationofthecriminallaw,andadraftcodewaspublishedin1989.However,itwasseverelycriticized,andthecommissiondroppedtheattemptandinsteadproducedaseriesofmore-specificrecommendations. Criminal-lawreformwasoneoftheinterestsoftheU.S.statesintheperiodfollowingtheAmericanRevolution.Intheearly1820s,acomprehensivedraftcodewaspreparedforLouisiana,thoughitwasneverenacted.Otherstatesalsomovedtocodifytheircriminallaws.NewYorkenactedacriminalcodein1881,settinganexamplethatwaseventuallyfollowedbymostofthestates.BecauseAmericancriminallawisprimarilyamatterfortheindividualstates(incontrasttoCanada,forexample,wherethenationalParliamentenactsthecriminalcodeforthewholecountry),therehasbeenconsiderablevariationinthecontentofthecodefromonestatetoanother.Inthemid-20thcentury,reformeffortsintheUnitedStatesledtothepublicationoftheModelPenalCode(1962),anattempttorationalizethecriminallawbyestablishingalogicalframeworkfordefiningoffensesandaconsistentbodyofgeneralprinciplesonsuchmattersascriminalintentandtheliabilityofaccomplices.TheModelPenalCodehadaprofoundinfluenceontherevisionofmanyindividualstatecodesoverthefollowingdecades;althoughneverenactedcompletely,itinspiredalongperiodofcriminal-codereform.DavidA.ThomasThomasJ.Bernard