Segregation in the United States - Meaning, Facts. & Legacy

Segregation is the practice of requiring separate housing, education and other services for people of color. Segregation was made law ... 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ContentsBlackCodesandJimCrowTheSupremeCourtandSegregationHousingSegregationSegregationDuringtheGreatMigrationSegregationandthePublicWorksAdministrationRed-LiningHousingSegregationSegregationinSchoolsBostonBusingCrisisSegregationinthe21stCenturySourcesSegregationisthepracticeofrequiringseparatehousing,educationandotherservicesforpeopleofcolor.Segregationwasmadelawseveraltimesin18th-and19th-centuryAmericaassomebelievedthatBlackandwhitepeoplewereincapableofcoexisting. Inthelead-uptotheliberationofenslavedpeopleundertheThirteenthAmendment,abolitionistsarguedaboutwhatthefateofslavesshouldbeoncetheywerefreed.Onegrouparguedforcolonization,eitherbyreturningtheformerlyenslavedpeopletoAfricaorcreatingtheirownhomeland.In1862PresidentAbrahamLincolnrecognizedtheex-slavecountriesofHaitiandLiberia,hopingtoopenupchannelsforcolonization,withCongressallocating$600,000tohelp.Whilethecolonizationplandidnotpanout,thecountry,instead,setforthonapathoflegallymandatedsegregation. BlackCodesandJimCrowThefirststepstowardofficialsegregationcameintheformof“BlackCodes.”ThesewerelawspassedthroughouttheSouthstartingaround1865,thatdictatedmostaspectsofBlackpeoples’lives,includingwheretheycouldworkandlive.ThecodesalsoensuredBlackpeople’savailabilityforcheaplaborafterslaverywasabolished.SegregationsoonbecameofficialpolicyenforcedbyaseriesofSouthernlaws.Throughso-calledJimCrowlaws(namedafteraderogatorytermforBlacks),legislatorssegregatedeverythingfromschoolstoresidentialareastopublicparkstotheaterstopoolstocemeteries,asylums,jailsandresidentialhomes.TherewereseparatewaitingroomsforwhitespeopleandBlackpeopleinprofessionalofficesand,in1915,Oklahomabecamethefirststatetoevensegregatepublicphonebooths.CollegesweresegregatedandseparateBlackinstitutionslikeHowardUniversityinWashington,D.C.andFiskUniversityinNashville,Tennesseewerecreatedtocompensate.Virginia’sHamptonInstitutewasestablishedin1869asaschoolforBlackyouth,butwithwhiteinstructorsteachingskillstorelegateBlackpeopleinservicepositionstowhites.READMORE:HowtheBlackCodesLimitedAfricanAmericanProgressAftertheCivilWarTheSupremeCourtandSegregationIn1875theoutgoingRepublican-controlledHouseandSenatepassedacivilrightsbilloutlawingdiscriminationinschools,churchesandpublictransportation.ButthebillwasbarelyenforcedandwasoverturnedbytheSupremeCourtin1883.In1896,theSupremeCourtruledinPlessyv.Fergusonthatsegregationwasconstitutional.Therulingestablishedtheideaof“separatebutequal.”Thecaseinvolvedamixed-racemanwhowasforcedtositintheBlack-designatedtraincarunderLouisiana’sSeparateCarAct.HousingSegregationAspartofthesegregationmovement,somecitiesinstitutedzoninglawsthatprohibitedBlackfamiliesfrommovingintowhite-dominantblocks.In1917,aspartofBuchananv.Warley,theSupremeCourtfoundsuchzoningtobeunconstitutionalbecauseitinterferedwithpropertyrightsofowners.Usingloopholesinthatrulinginthe1920s,SecretaryofCommerceHerbertHoovercreatedafederalzoningcommitteetopersuadelocalboardstopassrulespreventinglower-incomefamiliesfrommovingintomiddle-incomeneighborhoods,aneffortthattargetedBlackfamilies.Richmond,Virginia,decreedthatpeoplewerebarredfromresidencyonanyblockwheretheycouldnotlegallymarrythemajorityofresidents.ThisinvokedVirginia’santi-mixedracemarriagelawandwasnottechnicallyinviolationwiththeSupremeCourtdecision.SegregationDuringtheGreatMigrationDuringtheGreatMigration,aperiodbetween1916and1970,sixmillionAfricanAmericanslefttheSouth.HugenumbersmovednortheastandreporteddiscriminationandsegregationsimilartowhattheyhadexperiencedintheSouth.Aslateasthe1940s,itwasstillpossibletofind“WhitesOnly”signsonbusinessesintheNorth.Segregatedschoolsandneighborhoodsexisted,andevenafterWorldWarII,BlackactivistsreportedhostilereactionswhenBlackpeopleattemptedtomoveintowhiteneighborhoods.TheGreenBook:TheBlackTravelers’GuidetoJimCrowAmerica5Gallery5ImagesSegregationandthePublicWorksAdministrationThePublicWorksAdministration’seffortstobuildhousingforpeopledisplacedduringtheGreatDepressionfocusedonhomesforwhitefamiliesinwhitecommunities.OnlyasmallportionofhouseswasbuiltforBlackfamilies,andthosewerelimitedtosegregatedBlackcommunities.Insomecities,previouslyintegratedcommunitiesweretorndownbythePWAandreplacedbysegregatedprojects.ThereasongivenforthepolicywasthatBlackfamilieswouldbringdownpropertyvalues.Red-LiningStartinginthe1930s,theFederalHomeLoanBankBoardandtheHomeOwners'LoanCorporationconspiredtocreatemapswithmarkedareasconsideredbadrisksformortgagesinapracticeknownas“red-lining.”Theareasmarkedinredas“hazardous”typicallyoutlinedBlackneighborhoods.Thiskindofmappingconcentratedpovertyas(mostlyBlack)residentsinred-linedneighborhoodshadnoaccessoronlyveryexpensiveaccesstoloans. ScrolltoContinueRecommendedforyouHowaMalariaScareattheStartofWorldWarIIGaveRisetotheCDC8TreasuresDiscoveredinAttics,BarnsandMoreHowtheBattleofStalingradMarkedaTurningPointinWWIIREADMORE:HowaNewDealHousingProgramEnforcedSegregationThepracticedidnotbegintoenduntilthe1970s.Then,in2008,asystemof“reversered-lining,”whichextendedcreditonunfairtermswithsubprimeloans,createdahigherrateofforeclosureinBlackneighborhoodsduringthehousingcrisis.HousingSegregationIn1948,theSupremeCourtruledthataBlackfamilyhadtherighttomoveintotheirnewly-purchasedhomeinaquietneighborhoodinSt.Louis,despiteacovenantdatingbackto1911thatprecludedtheuseofthepropertyintheareaby“anypersonnotoftheCaucasianrace.”InShelleyv.Kramer,attorneysfromtheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP),ledbyThurgoodMarshall,arguedthatallowingsuchwhite-onlyrealestatecovenantswerenotonlymorallywrong,butstrategicallymisguidedinatimewhenthecountrywastryingtopromoteaunified,anti-SovietagendaunderPresidentHarryTruman.Civilrightsactivistssawthelandmarkcaseasanexampleofhowtostarttoundotrappingsofsegregationatthefederallevel.ButwhiletheSupremeCourtruledthatwhite-onlycovenantswerenotenforceable,therealestateplayingfieldwashardlyleveled.TheHousingActof1949wasproposedbyTrumantosolveahousingshortagecausedbysoldiersreturnedfromWorldWarII.Theactsubsidizedhousingforwhitesonly,evenstipulatingthatBlackfamiliescouldnotpurchasethehousesevenonresale.Theprogrameffectivelyresultedinthegovernmentfundingwhiteflightfromcities.Oneofthemostnotoriousofthewhite-onlycommunitiescreatedbytheHousingActwasLevittown,NewYork,builtin1949andfollowedbyotherLevittownsindifferentlocations. SegregationinSchoolsSegregationofchildreninpublicschoolswasstruckdownbytheSupremeCourtasunconstitutionalin1954withBrownv.BoardofEducation.ThecasewasoriginallyfiledinTopeka,Kansasafterseven-year-oldLindaBrownwasrejectedfromtheall-whiteschoolsthere.Afollow-upopinionhandeddecision-makingtolocalcourts,whichallowedsomedistrictstodefyschooldesegregation.ThisledtoashowdowninLittleRock,Arkansas,in1957,whenPresidentDwightD.EisenhowerdeployedfederaltroopstoensurenineBlackstudentsenteredhighschoolafterArkansasGovernorOrvalFaubushadcalledintheNationalGuardtoblockthem.WhenRosaParkswasarrestedin1955afterrefusingtogiveupherbusseattoawhitemaninMontgomery,Alabama,thecivilrightsmovementbeganinearnest.ThroughtheeffortsoforganizerslikeDr.MartinLutherKingJr.andtheresultingprotests,theCivilRightsActwassignedin1964,outlawingdiscrimination,thoughdesegregationwasaslowprocess,especiallyinschools.READMORE: HowDollsHelpedWinBrownv.BoardofEducationBostonBusingCrisisOneoftheworstincidentsofanti-integrationhappenedin1974.ViolencebrokeoutinBostonwhen,inordertosolvethecity’sschoolsegregationproblems,courtsmandatedabusingsystemthatcarriedBlackstudentsfrompredominantlyRoxburytoSouthBostonschools,andviceversa.ThestatehadpassedtheEliminationofRacialBalancelawin1965,butithadbeenheldupincourtbyIrishCatholicopposition.PoliceprotectedtheBlackstudentsasseveraldaysofviolencebrokeoutbetweenpoliceandSouthieresidents.Whitecrowdsgreetedthebuseswithinsults,andfurtherviolenceeruptedbetweenSouthieresidentsandretaliatingRoxburycrowds.Statetrooperswerecalledinuntiltheviolencesubsidedafterafewweeks.READMORE: WhatLedtoDesegregationBusing—andDidItWork?Segregationinthe21stCenturySegregationpersistsinthe21stCentury.Studiesshowthatwhilethepublicoverwhelminglysupportsintegratedschools,onlyathirdofAmericanswantfederalgovernmentinterventiontoenforceit.Theterm“apartheidschools”describesstill-existing,largelysegregatedschools,wherewhitestudentsmakeup0to10percentofthestudentbody.Thephenomenonreflectsresidentialsegregationincitiesandcommunitiesacrossthecountry,whichisnotcreatedbyovertlyraciallaws,butbylocalordinancesthattargetminoritiesdisproportionately.SourcesStampedFromtheBeginning:TheDefinitiveHistoryofRacistIdeasinAmericabyIbramX.Kendi,publishedbyBodleyHead.TheCaseforReparationsbyTa-NehisiCoates,TheAtlantic.DismantlingDesegregationbyGaryOrfieldandSusanE.EatonbytheNewPress. FACTCHECK:Westriveforaccuracyandfairness.Butifyouseesomethingthatdoesn'tlookright,clickheretocontactus!VIDEOSMafiaintheUnitedStatesAskHISTORY:WhatwasthefirstcapitaloftheUnitedStates?TheMendezFamily,TrailblazersFightingSchoolSegregationAMormonStateSubscribeforfascinatingstoriesconnectingthepasttothepresent.SIGNUPRELATEDCONTENTBlackHistoryintheUnitedStates:ATimelineInAugustof1619,ajournalentryrecordedthat“20andodd”Angolans,kidnappedbythePortuguese,arrivedintheBritishcolonyofVirginiaandwerethenwereboughtbyEnglishcolonists.ThedateandthestoryoftheenslavedAfricanshavebecomesymbolicofslavery’sroots,...readmoreDoesanExceptionClauseinthe13thAmendmentStillPermitSlavery?TheyeartheCivilWarended,theU.S.amendedtheConstitutiontoprohibitslaveryandinvoluntaryservitude.Butitpurposefullyleftinonebigloopholeforpeopleconvictedofcrimes.The13thAmendment,ratifiedin1865,says:“Neitherslaverynorinvoluntaryservitude,...readmoreTheGreatMigrationTheGreatMigrationwastherelocationofmorethan6millionBlackAmericansfromtheruralSouthtothecitiesoftheNorth,MidwestandWestfromabout1916to1970.Drivenfromtheirhomesbyunsatisfactoryeconomicopportunitiesandharshsegregationistlaws,manyBlacks...readmoreReconstructionReconstruction(1865-1877),theturbulenterafollowingtheCivilWar,wastheefforttoreintegrateSouthernstatesfromtheConfederacyand4millionnewly-freedpeopleintotheUnitedStates.UndertheadministrationofPresidentAndrewJohnsonin1865and1866,newsouthern...readmoreMontgomeryBusBoycottTheMontgomeryBusBoycottwasacivilrightsprotestduringwhichAfricanAmericansrefusedtoridecitybusesinMontgomery,Alabama,toprotestsegregatedseating.TheboycotttookplacefromDecember5,1955,toDecember20,1956,andisregardedasthefirstlarge-scale...readmoreLittleRockNineTheLittleRockNinewereagroupofnineBlackstudentswhoenrolledatformerlyall-whiteCentralHighSchoolinLittleRock,Arkansas,inSeptember1957.TheirattendanceattheschoolwasatestofBrownv.BoardofEducation,alandmark1954SupremeCourtrulingthat...readmoreBrownv.BoardofEducationBrownv.BoardofEducationofTopekawasalandmark1954SupremeCourtcaseinwhichthejusticesruledunanimouslythatracialsegregationofchildreninpublicschoolswasunconstitutional.Brownv.BoardofEducationwasoneofthecornerstonesofthecivilrightsmovement,...readmoreHowInterstateHighwaysGuttedCommunities—andReinforcedSegregationWhenCongressapprovedtheFederal-AidHighwayActof1956,itauthorizedwhatwasthenthelargestpublicworksprograminU.S.history.Thelawpromisedto construct41,000milesofanambitiousinterstatehighwaysystem thatwouldcriss-crossthenation,dramatically...readmoreMafiaintheUnitedStatesTheAmericanMafia,anItalian-Americanorganized-crimenetworkwithoperationsincitiesacrosstheUnitedStates,particularlyNewYorkandChicago,rosetopowerthroughitssuccessintheillicitliquortradeduringthe1920sProhibitionera.AfterProhibition,theMafia...readmoreLoading…SeeMoreCLOSECLOSECLOSECLOSE