Glycemic index - Wikipedia

The glycemic index is a number from 0 to 100 assigned to a food, with pure glucose arbitrarily given the value of 100, which represents the relative rise in ... Glycemicindex FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Numberassignedtofood Graphdescribingbloodsugarchangeduringadaywiththreemeals. Theglycemicindex(GI;/ɡlaɪˈsiːmɪk/[1])isanumberfrom0to100assignedtoafood,withpureglucosearbitrarilygiventhevalueof100,whichrepresentstherelativeriseinthebloodglucoseleveltwohoursafterconsumingthatfood.[2]TheGIofaspecificfooddependsprimarilyonthequantityandtypeofcarbohydrateitcontains,butisalsoaffectedbytheamountofentrapmentofthecarbohydratemoleculeswithinthefood,thefatandproteincontentofthefood,theamountoforganicacids(ortheirsalts)inthefood,andwhetheritiscookedand,ifso,howitiscooked.GItables,whichlistmanytypesoffoodsandtheirGIs,areavailable.[3]AfoodisconsideredtohavealowGIifitis55orless;highGIif70ormore;andmid-rangeGIif56to69. Thetermwasintroducedin1981byDavidJ.Jenkinsandco-workers.[4]Itisusefulforquantifyingtherelativerapiditywithwhichthebodybreaksdowncarbohydrates.[3]Ittakesintoaccountonlytheavailablecarbohydrate(totalcarbohydrateminusfiber)inafood.Glycemicindexdoesnotpredictanindividual'sglycemicresponsetoafood,butcanbeusedasatooltoassesstheinsulinresponseburdenofafood,averagedacrossastudiedpopulation.Individualresponsesvarygreatly.[5] Theglycemicindexisusuallyappliedinthecontextofthequantityofthefoodandtheamountofcarbohydrateinthefoodthatisactuallyconsumed.Arelatedmeasure,theglycemicload(GL),[6]factorsthisinbymultiplyingtheglycemicindexofthefoodinquestionbythecarbohydratecontentoftheactualserving. Apracticallimitationoftheglycemicindexisthatitdoesnotmeasureinsulinproductionduetorisesinbloodsugar.Asaresult,twofoodscouldhavethesameglycemicindex,butproducedifferentamountsofinsulin.Likewise,twofoodscouldhavethesameglycemicload,butcausedifferentinsulinresponses.Furthermore,boththeglycemicindexandglycemicloadmeasurementsaredefinedbythecarbohydratecontentoffood.Forexample,wheneatingsteak,whichhasnocarbohydratecontentbutprovidesahighproteinintake,upto50%ofthatproteincanbeconvertedtoglucosewhenthereislittletonocarbohydrateconsumedwithit.[7]Butbecauseitcontainsnocarbohydrateitself,steakcannothaveaglycemicindex.Forsomefoodcomparisons,theinsulinindexmaybemoreuseful. Contents 1Measurement 2Accuracy 3Grouping 4Application 4.1Weightcontrol 4.2Diseaseprevention 4.3Athleticperformance 5Limitations 5.1Comparedtoquantityofcarbohydrate 5.2Comparedtoinsulinindex 5.3Diabetics 6Seealso 7References 8Externallinks Measurement[edit] Theglycemicindexofafoodisdefinedastheincrementalareaunderthetwo-hourbloodglucoseresponsecurve(AUC)followinga12-hourfastandingestionofafoodwithacertainquantityofavailablecarbohydrate(usually50g).TheAUCofthetestfoodisdividedbytheAUCofthestandard(eitherglucoseorwhitebread,givingtwodifferentdefinitions)andmultipliedby100.TheaverageGIvalueiscalculatedfromdatacollectedin10humansubjects.Boththestandardandtestfoodmustcontainanequalamountofavailablecarbohydrate.Theresultgivesarelativerankingforeachtestedfood.[2][8] FoodswithcarbohydratesthatbreakdownquicklyduringdigestionandreleaseglucoserapidlyintothebloodstreamtendtohaveahighGI;foodswithcarbohydratesthatbreakdownmoreslowly,releasingglucosemoregraduallyintothebloodstream,tendtohavealowGI. Alowerglycemicindexsuggestsslowerratesofdigestionandabsorptionofthefoods'carbohydratesandcanalsoindicategreaterextractionfromtheliverandperipheryoftheproductsofcarbohydratedigestion. Thecurrentvalidatedmethodsuseglucoseasthereferencefood,givingitaglycemicindexvalueof100bydefinition.ThishastheadvantagesofbeinguniversalandproducingmaximumGIvaluesofapproximately100.Whitebreadcanalsobeusedasareferencefood,givingadifferentsetofGIvalues(ifwhitebread=100,thenglucose≈140).Forpeoplewhosestaplecarbohydratesourceiswhitebread,thishastheadvantageofconveyingdirectlywhetherreplacementofthedietarystaplewithadifferentfoodwouldresultinfasterorslowerbloodglucoseresponse.Adisadvantagewiththissystemisthatthereferencefoodisnotwell-defined,becausethereisnouniversalstandardforthecarbohydratecontentofwhitebread. Accuracy[edit] Glycemicindexchartsoftengiveonlyonevalueperfood,butvariationsarepossibledueto: Ripeness–riperfruitscontainmoresugars,increasingGI Cookingmethods–themorecooked,orovercooked,afood,themoreitscellularstructureisbroken,withatendencyforittodigestquicklyandraisebloodglucosemore Processing–e.g.,flourhasahigherGIthanthewholegrainfromwhichitisgroundasgrindingbreaksthegrain'sprotectivelayersandthelengthofstorage.Potatoesareanotableexample,rangingfrommoderatetoveryhighGIevenwithinthesamevariety.[9][10] Moreimportantly,theglycemicresponseisdifferentfromonepersontoanother,andalsointhesamepersonfromdaytoday,dependingonbloodglucoselevels,insulinresistance,andotherfactors.[5][10] Theglycemicindexonlyindicatestheimpactonglucoseleveltwohoursaftereatingthefood.Peoplewithdiabeteshaveelevatedlevelsforfourhoursorlongeraftereatingcertainfoods.[10] Grouping[edit] GIvaluescanbeinterpretedintuitivelyaspercentagesonanabsolutescaleandarecommonlyinterpretedasfollows: Group GIrange[11] Examples[11] Low 55orless fructose;pulses(black,pinto,kidney,lentil,peanut,chickpea);smallseeds(sunflower,flax,pumpkin,poppy,sesame,hemp);walnuts,cashews,mostwholeintactgrains(durum/spelt/kamutwheat,millet,oat,rye,rice,barley);mostvegetables,mostsweetfruits(peaches,strawberries,mangos);tagatose;mushrooms;chilis,unpeeledsweetpotato Medium 56–69 whitesugarorsucrose,notintactwholewheatorenrichedwheat,pitabread,basmatirice,unpeeledwhite/yellowpotato,grapejuice,raisins,prunes,pumpernickelbread,cranberryjuice,[12]regularicecream,banana,peeledsweetpotato[13] High 70andabove glucose(dextrose,grapesugar),highfructosecornsyrup,whitebread(onlyfromwheatendosperm),mostwhiterice(onlyfromriceendosperm),cornflakes,extrudedbreakfastcereals,maltose,maltodextrins,peeledwhite/yellowpotato(83). Alow-GIfoodwillcausebloodglucoselevelstoincreasemoreslowlyandsteadily,whichleadstolowerpostprandial(aftermeal)bloodglucosereadings. Ahigh-GIfoodcausesamorerapidriseinbloodglucoselevelandissuitableforenergyrecoveryafterexerciseorforapersonexperiencinghypoglycemia. Theglycemiceffectoffoodsdependsonanumberoffactors,suchasthetypeofstarch(amyloseversusamylopectin),physicalentrapmentofthestarchmoleculeswithinthefood,fatandproteincontentofthefoodandorganicacidsortheirsaltsinthemeal–addingvinegar,forexample,willlowertheGI.[14]Thepresenceoffatorsolubledietaryfibercanslowthegastricemptyingrate,thusloweringtheGI.Ingeneral,coarse,grainybreadswithhigheramountsoffiberhavealowerGIvaluethanwhitebreads.[15]However,mostbreadsmadewith100%wholewheatorwholemealflourhaveaGInotverydifferentfromendospermonly(white)bread.[16]Manybrownbreadsaretreatedwithenzymestosoftenthecrust,whichmakesthestarchmoreaccessible(highGI). Whileaddingfatorproteinwilllowertheglycemicresponsetoameal,thedifferencesremain.Thatis,withorwithoutadditions,thereisstillahigherbloodglucosecurveafterahigh-GIbreadthanafteralow-GIbreadsuchaspumpernickel. Fruitsandvegetablestendtohavealowglycemicindex.Theglycemicindexcanbeappliedonlytofoodswherethetestreliesonsubjectsconsuminganamountoffoodcontaining50gofavailablecarbohydrate.[citationneeded]Butmanyfruitsandvegetables(notpotatoes,sweetpotatoes,corn)containlessthan50gofavailablecarbohydratepertypicalserving.CarrotswereoriginallyandincorrectlyreportedashavingahighGI.[17]AlcoholicbeverageshavebeenreportedtohavelowGIvalues,butbeerwasinitiallyreportedtohaveamoderateGIduetothepresenceofmaltose.Thishasbeenrefutedbybrewingindustryprofessionals,whosaythatallmaltosesugarisconsumedinthebrewingprocessandthatpackagedbeerhaslittletonomaltosepresent.RecentstudieshaveshownthattheconsumptionofanalcoholicdrinkpriortoamealreducestheGIofthemealbyapproximately15%.[18]Moderatealcoholconsumptionmorethan12hourspriortoatestdoesnotaffecttheGI.[19] Manymoderndietsrelyontheglycemicindex,includingtheSouthBeachDiet,TransitionsbyMarketAmericaandNutriSystemNourishDiet.[20]However,othershavepointedoutthatfoodsgenerallyconsideredtobeunhealthycanhavealowglycemicindex,forinstance,chocolatecake(GI38),icecream(37),orpurefructose(19),whereasfoodslikepotatoesandricehaveGIsaround100butarecommonlyeateninsomecountrieswithlowratesofdiabetes.[13] Application[edit] Weightcontrol[edit] Dietaryreplacementofsaturatedfatsbycarbohydrateswithalowglycemicindexmaybebeneficialforweightcontrol,whereassubstitutionwithrefined,highglycemicindexcarbohydratesisnot.[21]ACochranereviewfoundthatadoptionoflowglycemicindex(orload)dietsbypeoplewhoareoverweightorobeseleadstomoreweightloss(andbetterfatcontrol)thanuseofdietsinvolvinghigherglycemicindex/loadorotherstrategies.[22]Benefitswereapparentevenwithlowglycemicindex/loaddietsthatallowpeopletoeatasmuchastheylike.[22]Theauthorsofthereviewconcludedthat"Loweringtheglycaemicloadofthedietappearstobeaneffectivemethodofpromotingweightlossandimprovinglipidprofilesandcanbesimplyincorporatedintoaperson'slifestyle."[22] Inclinicalmanagementofobesity,dietsbasedonalowglycemicindex/loadappeartoprovidebetterglycemicandinflammatorycontrolthanonesbasedonahighglycemicindex/load(andthereforecouldpotentiallybemoreeffectiveinpreventingobesity-relateddiseases).[23]Inoverweightandobesechildren,adoptionoflowglycemicindex/loaddietsmaynotleadtoweightlossbutmightpotentiallyprovideotherbenefits.[24] Diseaseprevention[edit] Severallinesofrecent[1999]scientificevidencehaveshownthatindividualswhofollowedalow-GIdietovermanyyearswereatasignificantlylowerriskfordevelopingtype2diabetes,coronaryheartdisease,andage-relatedmaculardegenerationthanothers.[25] Highbloodglucoselevelsorrepeatedglycemic"spikes"followingamealcanpromotethesediseasesbyincreasingsystemicglycativestress,otheroxidativestresstothevasculature,andalsobythedirectincreaseininsulinlevel.[26] Theglycativestresssetsupaviciouscycleofsystemicproteinglycation,compromisedproteineditingcapacityinvolvingtheubiquitinproteolyticpathwayandautophagicpathways,leadingtoenhancedaccumulationofglycatedandotherobsoleteproteins.[27] Postprandialhyperglycemiaisariskfactorassociatedwithdiabetes.A1998studyshowsthatitalsopresentsanincreasedriskforatherosclerosisinthenon-diabeticpopulation[28]andthathighGIdiets,highblood-sugarlevelsmoregenerally,[29]anddiabetes[30]arerelatedtokidneydiseaseaswell. Conversely,thereareareassuchasPeruandAsiawherepeopleeathigh-glycemicindexfoodssuchaspotatoesandhigh-GIricewithoutahighlevelofobesityordiabetes.[citationneeded]ThehighconsumptionoflegumesinSouthAmericaandfreshfruitandvegetablesinAsialikelylowerstheglycemiceffectintheseindividuals.[31]Themixingofhigh-andlow-GIcarbohydratesproducesmoderateGIvalues.[citationneeded] AstudyfromtheUniversityofSydneyinAustraliasuggeststhathavingabreakfastofwhitebreadandsugar-richcereals,overtime,canmakeapersonsusceptibletodiabetes,heartdisease,andevencancer.[32] Astudypublishedin2007intheAmericanJournalofClinicalNutritionfoundthatage-relatedadultmaculardegeneration(AMD),whichleadstoblindness,is42%higheramongpeoplewithahigh-GIdiet,andconcludedthateatingalower-GIdietwouldeliminate20%ofAMDcases.[33] TheAmericanDiabetesAssociationsupportsglycemicindexbutwarnsthatthetotalamountofcarbohydrateinthefoodisstillthestrongestandmostimportantindicator,andthateveryoneshouldmaketheirowncustommethodthatworksbestforthem.[34][35] TheInternationalLifeSciencesInstituteconcludedin2011thatbecausetherearemanydifferentwaysofloweringglycemicresponse,notallofwhichhavethesameeffectsonhealth,"Itisbecomingevidentthatmodifyingtheglycemicresponseofthedietshouldnotbeseenasastand-alonestrategybutratherasanelementofanoverallbalanceddietandlifestyle."[36] AsystematicreviewoffewhumantrialsexaminedthepotentialoflowGIdiettoimprovepregnancyoutcomes.Potentialbenefitswerestillseendespitenogroundbreakingfindingsinmaternalglycemiaorpregnancyoutcomes.Inthisregard,morewomenunderlowGIdietachievedthetargettreatmentgoalforthepostprandialglycemiclevelandreducedtheirneedforinsulintreatment.AlowGIdietcanalsoprovidegreaterbenefitstooverweightandobesewomen.InterventionatanearlystageofpregnancyhasshownatendencytolowerbirthweightandbirthcentileininfantsborntowomenwithGDM.[37] Athleticperformance[edit] Studieshaveshownthatenduranceathletesmaybenefitfromeatinglow-GIfoodsbeforeexercise,asthesefoodswillprovideexogenouscarbohydrateduringexercise,whichcanhelpsustainbloodglucoselevels.High-GIfoodsorfluidscanbebeneficialduringprolongedexercisetopromotecarbohydrateusageandhelpmaintainadequatebloodglucoselevels,aswellasafterexercise,tohelppromotemuscleglycogenresynthesis.[38][39] Limitations[edit] Comparedtoquantityofcarbohydrate[edit] Dependingonquantities,thenumberofgramsofcarbohydrateinafoodcanhaveabiggerimpactonbloodsugarlevelsthantheglycemicindexdoes.Consuminglessdietaryenergy,losingweight,andcarbohydratecountingcanbebetterforloweringthebloodsugarlevel.[10]Carbohydratesimpactglucoselevelsmostprofoundly,andtwofoodswiththesamecarbohydratecontentare,ingeneral,comparableintheireffectsonbloodsugar.Afoodwithalowglycemicindexcanhaveahighcarbohydratecontentorviceversa;thiscanbeaccountedforwiththeglycemicload(GL)whereGL=GI%×gramsofcarbohydrateperserving. Comparedtoinsulinindex[edit] Whiletheglycemicindexoffoodsisusedasaguidetotheriseinbloodglucosethatshouldfollowmealscontainingthosefoods,actualincreasesinbloodglucoseshowconsiderablevariabilityfrompersontoperson,evenafterconsumptionofidenticalmeals.[5]Thisisinpartbecauseglycemicindexdoesnottakeintoaccountotherfactorsbesidesglycemicresponse,suchasinsulinresponse,whichismeasuredbytheinsulinindexandcanbemoreappropriateinrepresentingtheeffectsfromsomefoodcontentsotherthancarbohydrates.[40]Inparticular,sinceitisbasedontheareaunderthecurveoftheglucoseresponseovertimefromingestingasubjectfood,theshapeofthecurvehasnobearingonthecorrespondingGIvalue.Theglucoseresponsecanrisetoahighlevelandfallquickly,orriselesshighbutremainthereforalongertime,andhavethesameareaunderthecurve. Diabetics[edit] Forsubjectswithtype1diabeteswhodonothaveaninsulinresponse,therateofappearanceofglucoseafteringestionrepresentstheabsorptionofthefooditself.Thisglycemicresponsehasbeenmodeled,[41]wherethemodelparametersforthefoodenablepredictionofthecontinuouseffectofthefoodovertimeonglucosevalues,andnotmerelytheultimateeffectthattheGIrepresents. Althoughtheglycemicindexprovidessomeinsightsintotherelativediabeticriskwithinspecificfoodgroups,itcontainsmanycounter-intuitiveratings.Theseincludesuggestionsthatbreadgenerallyhasahigherglycemicrankingthansugarandthatsomepotatoesaremoreglycemicthanglucose. Seealso[edit] Diabeticdiet Dispositionindex Glycemicefficacy Lowglycemicindexdiet Montignacdiet Overallnutritionalqualityindex References[edit] ^"glycaemicindexnoun".OxfordLearner'sDictionary. ^ab"GlycemicIndexDefined".GlycemicResearchInstitute.Retrieved2012-08-01. ^abJenkins,D.J.;Wolever,T.M.;Taylor,R.H.;Barker,H.;Fielden,H.;Baldwin,J.M.;Bowling,A.C.;Newman,H.C.;Jenkins,A.L.;Goff,D.V.(March1,1981)."Glycemicindexoffoods:aphysiologicalbasisforcarbohydrateexchange".TheAmericanJournalofClinicalNutrition.AmericanJournalofClinicalNutrition,Volume34.34(3):362–366.doi:10.1093/ajcn/34.3.362.PMID 6259925. ^Jenkins,FJ;Wolever,TM;Taylor,RH;Barker,H;Fielden,H;Baldwin,JM;Bowling,AC;Newman,HC;Jenkins,AL;Goff,DF(1981)."Glycemicindexoffoods:aphysiologicalbasisforcarbohydrateexchange".AmJClinNutr.34(3):362–6.doi:10.1093/ajcn/34.3.362.PMID 6259925. 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^ab"GlycemicIndexTrafficLightFoodChart".TheGIDiet.Retrieved2018-08-14. ^"WhatisaGlycemicIndex?".AngelikaChristie.2009-09-21.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2016-03-03.Retrieved2014-01-20. ^abFoster-PowellK,HoltSH,Brand-MillerJC(July2002)."Internationaltableofglycemicindexandglycemicloadvalues:2002".Am.J.Clin.Nutr.76(1):5–56.doi:10.1093/ajcn/76.1.5.PMID 12081815. ^Kirpitch,A.R.;Maryniuk,M.D.(2011)."The3R'sofGlycemicIndex:Recommendations,Research,andtheRealWorld".ClinicalDiabetes.29(4):155–59.doi:10.2337/diaclin.29.4.155.ISSN 0891-8929. ^GlycemicIndex:FromResearchtoNutritionRecommendations?.Copenhagen:NordicCouncilofMinisters.2005.ISBN 978-92-893-1256-1.TemaNord2005:589.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2013-12-27.Retrieved2012-08-01. ^AtkinsonFS,Foster-PowellK,Brand-MillerJC(December2008)."Internationaltablesofglycemicindexandglycemicloadvalues:2008".DiabetesCare.31(12):2281–83.doi:10.2337/dc08-1239.PMC 2584181.PMID 18835944. ^Brand-Miller,Jennie;Foster-Powell,Kaye(2005).TheLowGIDietRevolution:TheDefinitiveScience-BasedWeightLossPlan.Marlowe&Company.p. 139.ISBN 978-1-56924-413-5. ^Brand-MillerJC,FatemaK,FatimaK,et al.(June2007)."Effectofalcoholicbeveragesonpostprandialglycemiaandinsulinemiainlean,young,healthyadults".Am.J.Clin.Nutr.85(6):1545–51.doi:10.1093/ajcn/85.6.1545.PMID 17556691. ^GodleyR,BrownRC,WilliamsSM,GreenTJ(May2009)."Moderatealcoholconsumptionthenightbeforeglycaemicindextestinghasnoeffectonglycaemicresponse".EurJClinNutr.63(5):692–94.doi:10.1038/ejcn.2008.27.PMID 18398423. ^"Nutrisystem".2008-03-06.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMay6,2008.Retrieved2012-08-01. ^Brand-MillerJ,BuykenAE(2012)."Theglycemicindexissue".Curr.Opin.Lipidol.23(1):62–67.doi:10.1097/MOL.0b013e32834ec705.PMID 22157060.S2CID 205829601. ^abcThomasDE,ElliottEJ,BaurL(2007)."Lowglycaemicindexorlowglycaemicloaddietsforoverweightandobesity".CochraneDatabaseSystRev(3):CD005105.doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005105.pub2.PMID 17636786. ^SchwingshacklL,HoffmannG(2013)."Long-termeffectsoflowglycemicindex/loadvs.highglycemicindex/loaddietsonparametersofobesityandobesity-associatedrisks:asystematicreviewandmeta-analysis".NutrMetabCardiovascDis.23(8):699–706.doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2013.04.008.PMID 23786819. ^SchwingshacklL,HoblLP,HoffmannG(2015)."Effectsoflowglycaemicindex/lowglycaemicloadvs.highglycaemicindex/highglycaemicloaddietsonoverweight/obesityandassociatedriskfactorsinchildrenandadolescents:asystematicreviewandmeta-analysis".NutrJ.14:87.doi:10.1186/s12937-015-0077-1.PMC 4618749.PMID 26489667. ^ChiuCJ,LiuS,WillettWC,et al.(April2011)."Informingfoodchoicesandhealthoutcomesbyuseofthedietaryglycemicindex".Nutr.Rev.69(4):231–42.doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00382.x.PMC 3070918.PMID 21457267. ^Temelkova-KurktschievTS,KoehlerC,HenkelE,LeonhardtW,FueckerK,HanefeldM(December2000)."PostchallengeplasmaglucoseandglycemicspikesaremorestronglyassociatedwithatherosclerosisthanfastingglucoseorHbA1clevel".DiabetesCare.23(12):1830–34.doi:10.2337/diacare.23.12.1830.PMID 11128361. ^UchikiT,WeikelKA,JiaoW,et al.(February2012)."Glycation-alteredproteolysisasapathobiologicmechanismthatlinksdietaryglycemicindex,aging,andage-relateddisease(innondiabetics)".AgingCell.11(1):1–13.doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2011.00752.x.PMC 3257376.PMID 21967227. ^BalkauB,ShipleyM,JarrettRJ,et al.(March1998)."Highbloodglucoseconcentrationisariskfactorformortalityinmiddle-agednondiabeticmen.20-yearfollow-upintheWhitehallStudy,theParisProspectiveStudy,andtheHelsinkiPolicemenStudy".DiabetesCare.21(3):360–67.doi:10.2337/diacare.21.3.360.PMID 9540016.S2CID 37025679. ^"KidneyDisease(Nephropathy)".AmericanDiabetesAssociation.Retrieved2012-07-29. ^"Diabetesandkidneyfailure".BetterHealthChannel.StateGovernmentofVictoria.Retrieved2012-02-21. ^Wee,MayS.M.;Henry,ChristianiJeyakumar(2020)."Reducingtheglycemicimpactofcarbohydratesonfoodsandmeals:StrategiesforthefoodindustryandconsumerswithspecialfocusonAsia".ComprehensiveReviewsinFoodScienceandFoodSafety.19(2):670–702.doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12525.ISSN 1541-4337.PMID 33325165. ^BarclayAW,PetoczP,McMillan-PriceJ,FloodVM,PrvanT,MitchellP,Brand-MillerJC(March2008)."Glycemicindex,glycemicload,andchronicdiseaserisk–ameta-analysisofobservationalstudies".TheAmericanJournalofClinicalNutrition.AmJClinNutr.87(3):627–37.doi:10.1093/ajcn/87.3.627.PMID 18326601. ^ChiuCJ,MiltonRC,GenslerG,TaylorA(July2007)."Associationbetweendietaryglycemicindexandage-relatedmaculardegenerationinnondiabeticparticipantsintheAge-RelatedEyeDiseaseStudy".Am.J.Clin.Nutr.86(1):180–88.doi:10.1093/ajcn/86.1.180.PMID 17616779. ^SheardNF,ClarkNG,Brand-MillerJC,et al.(September2004)."Dietarycarbohydrate(amountandtype)inthepreventionandmanagementofdiabetes:astatementbytheAmericanDiabetesAssociation".DiabetesCare.27(9):2266–71.doi:10.2337/diacare.27.9.2266.PMID 15333500. ^"GlycemicIndexandDiabetes".AmericanDiabetesAssociation.Archivedfromtheoriginalon31October2013.Retrieved8June2011.Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^Sadler,Michele(2011).Food,GlycaemicResponseandHealth.Brussels,Belgium:ILSIEurope.pp. 1–30.ISBN 9789078637318. ^MohdYusofBN,FirouziS,MohdShariffZ,MustafaN,MohamedIsmailNA,KamaruddinNA(March2014)."Weighingtheevidenceoflowglycemicindexdietaryinterventionforthemanagementofgestationaldiabetesmellitus:anAsianperspective".IntJFoodSciNutr.65(2):144–50.doi:10.3109/09637486.2013.845652.PMID 24517860.S2CID 27169878. ^Walton,P.;Rhodes,E.C.(March1997)."Glycaemicindexandoptimalperformance".SportsMedicine(Auckland,N.Z.).23(3):164–172.doi:10.2165/00007256-199723030-00003.ISSN 0112-1642.PMID 9108636.S2CID 11494685. ^Wein,Debra."GlycemicIndexforAthletes"(PDF).NSCA'sPerformanceTrainingJournal.6(3):14–15. ^"DavidMendosa.InsulinIndex.July13,2003".Mendosa.com.Retrieved2012-08-01. ^WorthingtonDR(Jan–Mar1997)."Minimalmodeloffoodabsorptioninthegut".MedInform(Lond).22(1):35–45.doi:10.3109/14639239709089833.PMID 9183779. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoGlycemicindex. HumanNutritionUnit;SchoolofMolecularBioscience."GlycemicIndex".InternationalGIdatabase.UniversityofSydney.–Searchabledatabaseofover2600foodswiththeirglycemicindexandloadvalues. ListoflowGIfoods–ProvidedbytheUniversityofSydneywithsomeadditionalfoods. InternationalTablesofGlycemicIndexandGlycemicLoadValues-2008Articleprovidingdataabout2500fooditemssystematicallygatheredfrompublishedandunpublishedsourcesofreliableglycemicindex(GI)values.Glycemicload(GL)valuesperservingandamountofavailablecarbohydrates(totalcarbohydrateminusfiber)perservingarealsoprovided. TableA1GIandGLvaluesforsubjectswithnormalglucosetolerance. TableA2GIandGLvaluesforsubjectswithimpariedglucosetolerance,togetherwithdataobtainedfromsmallsamples,anddatashowingwidevariability. SimplifiedversionofTableA1withshortintroductionbyD.Mendosa. Foster-PowellK,HoltSH,Brand-MillerJC(July2002)."Internationaltableofglycemicindexandglycemicloadvalues:2002".Am.J.Clin.Nutr.76(1):5–56.doi:10.1093/ajcn/76.1.5.PMID 12081815.750items GlycemicIndexandGlycemicLoadcalculatorTotalvaluesforanycombinationsoffoodsandanynumberofservingsarecomputedaccordingtoFAO/WHOspecifications).DataaregatheredfromtheabovementionedInternationaltablebyFoster-Powelletal.(2002). 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