Dutch ( Nederlands ) is a West Germanic language spoken by around 22 million people, mainly in the Netherlands and Belgium. History. The history of the Dutch ...
Dutchlanguage
2007SchoolsWikipediaSelection.Relatedsubjects:Languages
DutchNederlands
Pronunciation:
IPA:ˈneːdərlɑnts
Spoken in:
Netherlands,Belgium,Suriname,Aruba,NetherlandsAntilles,andothercountries.
Total speakers:
22million(2005)
Ranking:
37-48(dependingoncountingmethod)
Languagefamily:
Indo-European Germanic WestGermanic LowFranconian Dutch
Writingsystem:
Latinalphabet(Dutchvariant)
Officialstatus
Officiallanguageof:
Aruba,Belgium,EuropeanUnion,Netherlands,NetherlandsAntilles,SouthAmericanCommunityofNations,Suriname
Regulatedby:
NederlandseTaalunie(DutchLanguageUnion)
Languagecodes
ISO639-1:
nl
ISO639-2:
dut (B)
nld (T)
ISO/FDIS 639-3:
nld
MapofthemainareainwhichDutchisspoken
Note:ThispagemaycontainIPAphoneticsymbolsinUnicode.SeeIPAchartforEnglishforanEnglish-basedpronunciationkey.
Dutch(Nederlands )isaWestGermaniclanguagespokenbyaround22millionpeople,mainlyintheNetherlandsandBelgium.
History
ThehistoryoftheDutchlanguagebeginsaround450/500AD,afterOldFrankish,oneofthemanyWestGermanictriballanguages,wassplitbytheSecondGermanicconsonantshiftwhileatmoreorlessthesametimetheIngvaeonicnasalspirantlawledtothedevelopmentofthedirectancestorsofmodernLowSaxon,FrisianandEnglish.ThenortherndialectsofOldFrankishgenerallydidnotparticipateineitherofthesetwoshifts,exceptforasmallamountofphoneticchanges,andarehenceknownnowasOldLowFranconian;the"Low"referstodialectsnotinfluencedbytheconsonantshift.ThemostsoutheasterndialectsoftheFranconianlanguagesbecamepartofHigh,specificallyUpper,Germaneventhoughadialectcontinuumremained.ThefactthatDutchdidnotundergothesoundchangesmaybethereasonwhysomepeoplesaythatDutchislikeabridgebetweenEnglishandGerman.WithinOldLowFranconianthereweretwosubgroups:OldEastLowFranconianandOldWestLowFranconian,whichisbetterknownasOldDutch.EastLowFranconianwaseventuallyabsorbedbyDutchasitbecamethedominantformofLowFranconian,althoughitremainsanoticeablesubtratewithinthesouthernLimburgishdialectsofDutch.BecausethetwogroupsweresosimilaritisoftenveryhardtodeterminewhetheratextisOldDutchorOldEastLowFranconian,hencemostlinguistswillgenerallyuseOldDutchsynonymouslywithOldLowFranconianandmostofthetimedonotdifferentiate.Dutch,likemostmodernlanguages,isconventionallydividedintothreephases:
450/500-1150OldDutch(FirstattestedintheSalicLaw)1150-1500MiddleDutch(Alsocalled"Diets"inpopularuse,thoughnotbylinguists)1500-PresentModernDutch(SawthecreationoftheDutchstandardlanguageandincludescontemporaryDutch)
ThetransitionbetweentheselanguageswasverygradualandoneofthefewmomentslinguistscandetectsomewhatofarevolutioniswhentheDutchstandardlanguageemergedandquicklyestablisheditself.ItshouldbenotedthatStandardDutchisverysimilartomostDutchdialects.ToactuallyseetheevolutionoftheDutchlanguagethefollowing,originallyOldDutch,sentencehasbeentranslatedintoMiddleandModernDutch.
"Irlôsinsolanfrithesêlamînafanthênthiaginâcontmi,wandaundermanagonhewasmitmi."(OldDutch)
"Erlossensalhiinvredesieleminevandiendiegenakenmi,wantondermenegenhiwasmetmi"(MiddleDutch)
(Usingsamewordorder)
"Verlossenzalhijinvredezielmijnvanzijdiegenakenmij,wantondermenigenhijwasmetmij"(ModernDutch)
(UsingcorrectcontemporaryDutchwordorder)
"Hijzalmijnzielverlosseninvrede(netals)zijdie(mijnziel)genaken,wantondermenigenwashijmetmij"(ModernDutch)
"HewillrelievemysoulinpeacelikehewillrelievethesoulsofotherswholivedlikemeasHewasamongstmanytimes"(LooseEnglishtranslation)
AprocessofstandardizationstartedintheMiddleages,especiallyundertheinfluenceoftheBurgundianDucalCourtinDijon(Brusselsafter1477).ThedialectsofFlandersandBrabantwerethemostinfluentialaroundthistime.Theprocessofstandardizationbecamemuchstrongeratthestartofthe16thcentury,mainlybasedontheurbandialectofAntwerp.In1585AntwerpfelltotheSpanisharmy:manyfledtotheNorthernNetherlands,especiallytheprovinceofHolland,wheretheyinfluencedtheurbandialectsofthatprovince.In1637,afurtherimportantstepwasmadetowardsaunifiedlanguage,whenthefirstmajorDutchBibletranslationwascreatedthatpeoplefromallovertheUnitedProvincescouldunderstand.Itusedelementsfromvarious,evenLowSaxon,dialectsbutwaspredominantlybasedontheurbandialectsofHolland.Etymologyoftheword"Dutch"
ThewordDutchcomesfromtheproto-Germanicword*þeudisko-z,andbecameDuutscinMiddleDutch,whichlatergavethetwoearlymodernDutchforms,DuitsinthenorthandDietsinthesouth.Duitshastakenonthemeaningof"German"andDietsmeaning"Dutch"(alongwith"Nederlands")butnolongeringeneraluse(seetheDietsarticle),droppedforitsNazi-eraovertones.GermanDeutschmeaning"German"hasthesameorigin.TheEnglishwordDutchhasalsochangedwithtime.Itwasonlyaround1550,withgrowingculturalandeconomicalcontactsandtheriseofanindependentcountry,thatthemodernmeaningarose,i.e.,'designatingthepeopleoftheNetherlandsortheirlanguage'.Priortothis,themeaningwasmoregeneralandcouldrefertoanyGermanic-speakingareaorthelanguagesthere(includingthecurrentGermany,Austria,andSwitzerlandaswellastheNetherlands).Forexample:
WilliamCaxton(c.1422–1491)wroteinhisProloguetohisAeneidsin1490thatanoldEnglishtextwasmoreliketoDutchethanEnglish.Inhisnotes,ProfessorW.F.BoltonmakesclearthatthiswordmeansGermaningeneralratherthanDutch.
InfourbookscontainingtheChronographyandHistoryofthewholeworld,Vol.II(London,1677:154)contains"…theDutchcallLeibnitz,"addingthatDutchisspokeninthepartsofHungaryadjoiningtoGermany.
Tothisday,descendantsofGermansettlersinsoutheasternPennsylvaniaareknownasthe"PennsylvaniaDutch",especiallythosewhoaremembersoftheplainsects.(ThosewhoarenotmembersoftheplainsectsoftenidentifythemselvesasbeingPennsylvaniaGerman).
Classificationandrelatedlanguages
DutchisaGermaniclanguage,andwithinthisfamilyitisaWestGermaniclanguage.SinceitdidnotexperiencetheHighGermanconsonantshift(apartfromþ→d),itisaLowSaxon-LowFranconianlanguage(LowGermaniclanguage),anditismostcloselyrelatedtotheLowSaxonvarietyoftheWestGermaniclanguages.TherewasinfactadialectcontinuumwhichblurredanyclearboundarybetweenDutchandLowSaxon,insomeminuteareastherearestilltinydialectcontinuumsbuttheycontinuetogoextinct.DutchisgrammaticallysimilartoGerman,forexampleinsyntaxandverbmorphology(foracomparisonofverbmorphologyinEnglish,DutchandGerman,seeGermanicweakverbandGermanicstrongverb).Dutchhasgrammaticalcases,butthesearenowmostlylimitedtopronounsandsetphrases.Dutchhasthreegenders:masculine,feminineandneuteralthoughmasculineandfemininehavemergedtoformthecommongender(de),whilsttheneuter(het)remainsdistinctasbefore.TheinflectionalgrammarofDutch,forinstanceinadjectiveandnounendings,hasbeensimplifiedovertime.
English
Frisian
Dutch
(High)German
Remark
eatcattown
itekattún(1)
etenkattuin(1)
essenKatzeZaun(2)
English,FrisianandDutchhavekeptGermanict;Germanhasshiftedtto[s]or[ts]
applepipethorpe
appelpiipterp(3)
appelpijpdorp(4)
ApfelPfeifeDorf(4)
English,FrisianandDutchhavekeptGermanicp;Germanhasshiftedpto[f]or[pf]
thinkthroughthorn
tinketrochtoarne
denkendoordoorn
denkendurchDorn
EnglishhaskeptGermanicþ;Frisianhasshiftedþto[t],DutchandGermanhaveshiftedþto[d]
therebrother
dêrbroer
daarbroeder,broer
daBruder
EnglishhaskeptGermanicð;FrisianandDutchshiftedtoðto[d]ordeleteditbetweenvowels;Germanshiftedðto[d]
yesterdayyarnday
justerjerndei
gisterengarendag
gesternGarnTag
DutchhasshiftedGermanicgtothevelarfricatives[ɣ]and[x],butretainedthespellingwithandthusatleastavisualsimilaritytoGerman;EnglishandFrisianhaveshiftedgto[j]beforepalatalvowels
churchmake
tsjerkemeitsje
kerkmaken
Kirchemachen
EnglishandFrisianshiftedkto[tʃ]beforepalatalvowels,DutchretainedGermanick,Germanshiftedkto[x]or[ç]whenitwasnotininitialposition
Notesemanticshifts:1.'garden';2.'fence';3.'hill'4.'village'EvenwhenwrittenDutchlookssimilartoGerman,however,thepronunciationmaybemarkedlydifferent.Thisistrueespeciallyofthediphthongsandoftheletter,whichispronouncedasavelarcontinuantsimilartotheinSwissGerman.TherhoticpronunciationofcausessomeEnglish-speakerstobelieveDutchsoundssimilartoaWestCountryaccent;thisisthereasonforBillBryson'sfamousremarkthatwhenonehearsDutchonefeelsoneoughttobeabletounderstandit.Dutchpronunciationis,however,difficulttomasterforAnglophones,manyofitsdiphthongsandgutturalsbeingthegreatestobstacles.GermansseemtohaveanadvantagewiththeDutchgrammar,butsufferthesamedifficultiesastheEnglishwhendealingwithpronunciation.DutchisgenerallynotonthecurriculumofGermanschools,exceptinsomebordercities,suchasAachenandOldenburg.Geographicdistribution
DutchisspokenbypracticallyallinhabitantsoftheNetherlandsandFlanders,thenorthernhalfofBelgiumwhereitisoftenreferredtobythedialectnameVlaams(Flemish).ItisalsospokeninthebilingualregionofBrussels,togetherwithFrenchandotherlanguages.InthenorthernmostpartofFrance,theDunkirkarrondissementintheNorddépartement,Dutchisstillspokenasaminoritylanguage,alsooftenreferredtobythedialectnameVlaams.OntheCaribbeanislandsofArubaandtheNetherlandsAntilles,DutchisusedbutlesssothanPapiamento(Aruba,Curaçao,Bonaire)andEnglish(SintMaarten,SintEustatius,Saba).Dutchisspokenasamothertonguebyabout60%ofthepopulationinSuriname,mostofthembeingbilingualwithSrananTongoandotherethniclanguages(2005,NederlandseTaalunie:,inDutch).TherearealsosomespeakersofDutchinIndonesiaandincountrieswithalotofDutchmigrants,suchasCanada,Australia,NewZealandandtheUnitedStates.InSouthAfricaandNamibiaalanguagecloselyrelatedtoDutch,calledAfrikaansisspoken.Officialstatus
DutchisanofficiallanguageoftheNetherlands,Belgium,Suriname,Aruba,andtheNetherlandsAntilles.TheDutch,FlemishandSurinamesegovernmentscoordinatetheirlanguageactivitiesintheNederlandseTaalunie('DutchLanguageUnion').DutchwasanofficiallanguageinSouthAfricaupuntil1961,havingfallenintodisusesinceAfrikaansbecameanofficiallanguagein1925.AnoticeableminorityoftheinhabitantsofNewZealand,16,347(0.4%)aresufficientlyfluentinDutchtocarryonaneverydayconversation.StandaardnederlandsorAlgemeenNederlands('CommonDutch',abbreviatedtoAN)isthestandardlanguageastaughtinschoolsandusedbyauthoritiesintheNetherlands,Flanders,Suriname,ArubaandtheNetherlandsAntilles.TheDutchLanguageUniondefineswhatisANandwhatisnot,forexampleintermsoforthography.Sinceeffortstoupliftpeoplecametobeconsideredratherpresumptuous,asreflectedbytheevolutionofthevocabularyheardontelevision,theearliernameAlgemeenBeschaafdNederlands('CommonCivilizedDutch')anditsabbreviationABNhavebeenreplacedwithAlgemeenNederlandsandthusAN.Dialects
ThemainDutchdialectalgroups.
InFlanders,thereareroughlyfourdialectgroups:WestFlemish,EastFlemish,BrabantianandLimburgish.Someofthesedialects,especiallyWestandEastFlemishhaveincorporatedsomeFrenchloanwordsineverydaylanguage.Anexampleisfourchetteinvariousforms(originallyaFrenchwordmeaningfork),insteadofvork.Brussels,especially,isheavilyinfluencedbyFrenchbecauseroughly85%oftheinhabitantsofBrusselsspeakFrench.TheLimburgishinBelgiumiscloselyrelatedtoDutchLimburgish.AnoddityofWestFlemings(andtoalesserextent,EastFlemings)isthat,whentheyspeakAN,theirpronunciationofthe"softg"sound(thevoicedvelarfricative)isalmostidenticaltothatofthe"h"sound(thevoicedglottalfricative),thus,thewordsheld(hero)andgeld(money)soundnearlythesame,exceptthatthelatterwordhasa'y'/j/soundembeddedintothe"softg".Whentheyspeaktheirlocaldialect,however,their"g"isalmostthe"h"oftheAlgemeenNederlands,andtheydonotpronouncethe"h".SomeFlemishdialectsaresodistinctthattheymightbeconsideredasseparatelanguagevariants,althoughthestrongsignificanceoflanguageinBelgianpoliticswouldpreventthegovernmentfromdoingso.WestFlemishinparticularhassometimesbeenconsideredassuch.Dialectbordersofthesedialectsdonotcorrespondtopresentpoliticalboundaries,butreflectolder,medievaldivisions.TheBrabantiandialectgroup,forinstance,alsoextendstomuchofthesouthoftheNetherlands,andsodoesLimburgish.West-FlemishisalsospokeninpartoftheDutchprovinceofZeeland,andeveninasmallpartnearDunkirk,France,borderingonBelgium.TheNetherlandsalsohavedifferentdialectregions.IntheeastthereisanextensiveLowSaxondialectarea:theprovincesofGroningen(Gronings),DrentheandOverijsselarealmostexclusivelyLowSaxon.Zuid-GeldersisadialectalsospokenintheGermanlandofNorthRhine-Westphalia.Brabantian(Noord-Brabant)fadesintothedialectsspokenintheadjoiningprovincesofBelgium.ThesameappliestoLimburgish(Limburg(Netherlands)),butthisvariantalsohasthestatusofofficialregionallanguageintheNetherlands(butnotinBelgium).Itreceivesprotectionbychapter2oftheEuropeanCharterforRegionalorMinorityLanguages.LimburgishhasbeeninfluencedbytheRhinelandicdialectsliketheColognedialect:KölschPlatt,andhashadasomewhatdifferentdevelopmentsincethelateMiddleAges.ZealandicofmostofZeelandisatransitionalregionallanguagebetweenWestFlemishandHollandic,withtheexceptionoftheeasternpartofZealandicFlanderswhereEastFlemishisspoken.InHollandproper,Hollandicisspoken,thoughtheoriginalformsofthisdialect,heavilyinfluencedbyaFrisiansubstratum,arenowrelativelyrare;theurbandialectsoftheRandstad,whichareHollandicdialects,donotdivergefromstandardDutchverymuch,butthereisacleardifferencebetweenthecitydialectsofRotterdam,TheHague,AmsterdamorUtrecht.InsomeruralHollandicareasmoreauthenticHollandicdialectsarestillbeingused,especiallynorthofAmsterdam.LimburgishandLowSaxonhavebeenelevatedbytheNetherlands(andbyGermany)tothelegalstatusofstreektaal(regionallanguage)accordingtotheEuropeanCharterforRegionalorMinorityLanguages,whichcausessomenativespeakerstoconsiderthemseparatelanguages.SomedialectsareunintelligibletosomespeakersofStandardDutch.Dutchdialectsarenotspokenasoftenastheyusedtobe.NowadaysinTheNetherlandsonlyolderpeoplespeakthesedialectsinthesmallervillages,withtheexceptionoftheLowSaxonandLimburgishstreektalen,whichareactivelypromotedbysomeprovincesandstillincommonuse.MosttownsandcitiessticktostandardDutch-althoughmanycitieshavetheirowncitydialect,whichcontinuestoprosper.InBelgiumdialectsareverymuchalivehowever;manyseniorcitizensthereareunabletospeakstandardDutch.InboththeNetherlandsandBelgium,manylargercitiesalsohaveseveraldistinctsmallerdialects.BymanynativespeakersofDutch,bothinBelgiumandtheNetherlands,AfrikaansandFrisianareoftenassumedtobeverydeviantdialectsofDutch.Infact,theyaretwodifferentlanguages,AfrikaanshavingevolvedmainlyfromDutch.ThereisnodialectcontinuumbetweentheFrisianandadjoiningLowSaxon.AFrisianstandardlanguagehasbeendeveloped.Untiltheearly20thcentury,variantsofDutchwerestillspokenbysomedescendantsofDutchcoloniesintheUnitedStates.NewJerseyinparticularhadanactiveDutchcommunitywithahighlydivergentdialectthatwasspokenasrecentlyasthe1950s.SeeJerseyDutchformoreonthisdialect.Accents
InadditiontothemanydialectsoftheDutchlanguagemanyprovincesandlargercitieshavetheirownaccents,whichareusuallyaccompaniedbyaparticulardialect.Ethnicminoritycommunitiestendtohavevaryingaccents:forexamplemanypeoplefromtheDutchAntillesorSurinamespeakwitha"Surinaams"accent,andtheDutch-MoroccanandDutch-Turkishyouthhavealsodevelopedtheirownaccents,whichinsomecasesareenhancedbyadebasedDutchslangwithArabicorTurkishwordsthrownin;aprominentfeatureofthelattertwoaccentsistheexcessiveuseoftheimperative.Derivedlanguages
AfrikaansisderivedfromDutchandisoneofthe11languagesofSouthAfricaandthemothertongueofabout15%ofitspopulationandspokenorunderstoodbymanymore.AfrikaansoriginatedfrommodernDutch(1500-present).BeforetheUnitedKingdomtookcontrolofSouthAfricafromtheNetherlandsin1814,theAfrikaanslanguage(whichwasn'tcalledorconsideredAfrikaansatthattime)wasexposedtoasteadystreamofDutchlanguageinfluence,andthetwolanguageswerethereforealmostidentical.ThedifferentiationandmajorchangesfromDutchstartedwhentheDutchsettlersmoveddeepinland(TrekBoers).Inaddition,whentheUKseizedSouthAfrica,theDutchlanguagespokeninSouthAfricawaspracticallycutofffromotherDutch-speakingareas,allowingthelanguagetodifferentiateandevolvefurther.In1922theAfrikaanslanguagewasrecognizedasoneofSouthAfrica'sofficiallanguages,alongsideDutchandEnglish.DutchwasformallyderecognizedinSouthAfricaonlyin1984(since1961ithadmeritedonlyamentioninthelegislation).Bythattimehoweverithadnolongerbeenineverydayofficialuseforalongtime.ThedistinctionofAfrikaansfromtheDutchlanguagewasperhapsbrieflyindangerjustaftertheSecondWorldWarwhenagreatnumberofDutchimmigrantschoseSouthAfricaastheirnewhomeland.However,theAfrikaanslanguagesurvivedthenewinfluxofDutchlanguagewhichpresentedthedangerofturningAfrikaansintoamixedlanguage.PracticallyalloftheDutchimmigrantsandtheirdescendantsnowspeakAfrikaansinsteadofDutch,beit(inthecaseoftheDutch-bornparents)withaslightaccent.Agreatdealofmutualintelligibilitystillexists.SomeonewhoisabletospeakDutchusuallycanreadandunderstandAfrikaans(especiallywhenthenativedialectisHollandic,Zealandic,FlemishorBrabantic).TherearealsoDutch-basedcreolelanguages.NamesoftheDutchlanguage
BecauseoftheturbulenthistoryofboththeNetherlands,BelgiumaswellastheDutchlanguage,thenamesthatotherpeopleshavechosentousetorefertoitvarymorethanformostotherlanguages.Mostlythenameisderivedeitherfrom"Holland"animportanthistoricalprovince,oratranslationof"LowCountries",butmanyothervariantsexistincludingthosederivingfrom"Flanders",theancientGermanicwordfor"thepeople"andancientGermanictribeslivingintheregionoftheLowCountriesatthetimeoftheRomanEmpire.Sounds
Vowels
ThevowelinventoryofDutchislarge,with14simplevowelsandfourdiphthongs.Thevowels/eː/,/øː/,/oː/areincludedonthediphthongchartbecausetheyareactuallyproducedasnarrowclosingdiphthongsinmanydialects,butbehavephonologicallyliketheothersimplevowels.[ɐ](anear-opencentralvowel)isanallophoneofunstressed/a/and/ɑ/.
IPAchartDutchmonophthongs
IPAchartDutchdiphthongs
DutchVowelswithExampleWords
Symbol
Example
IPA
IPA
orthography
Englishtranslation
ɪ
bɪt
bit
'bit'
i
bit
biet
'beetroot'
ʏ
hʏt
hut
'cabin'
y
fyt
fuut
'grebe'
ɛ
bɛt
bed
'bed'
eː
beːt
beet
'bite'
ə
də
de
'the'
øː
nøːs
neus
'nose'
ɑ
bɑt
bad
'bath'
aː
zaːt
zaad
'seed'
ɔ
bɔt
bot
'bone'
oː
boːt
boot
'boat'
u
hut
hoed
'hat'
ɛi
ɛi,ʋɛin
ei,wijn
'egg','wine'
œy
œy
ui
'onion'
ʌu
zʌut,fʌun
zout,faun
'salt','faun'
Consonants
IPAchartDutchconsonants
Bilabial
Labio-dental
Alveolar
Post-alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Uvular
Glottal
Plosive
pb
td
kg1
ʔ 2
Nasal
m
n
ŋ
Fricative
fv 3
sz 3
ʃʒ 4
xɣ 3
ʁ 5
ɦ
Approximant
ʋ 6
j
Lateral
l
Wheresymbolsforconsonantsoccurinpairs,theleftrepresentsthevoicelessconsonantandtherightrepresentsthevoicedconsonant.Notes:1)[g]isnotanativephonemeofDutchandonlyoccursinborrowedwords,likegoal.2)[ʔ]isnotaseparatephonemeinDutch,butisinsertedbeforevowel-initialsyllableswithinwordsafter/a/and/ə/andoftenalsoatthebeginningofaword.3)Insomedialects,notablythatofAmsterdam,thevoicedfricativeshavealmostcompletelymergedwiththevoicelessones,and[v]isusuallyrealizedas[f],[z]isusuallyrealizedas[s],and[ɣ]isusuallyrealizedas[x].4)[ʃ]and[ʒ]arenotnativephonemesofDutch,andusuallyoccurinborrowedwords,likeshowandbagage(baggage).Andeventhentheyareusuallyrealizedas/sj/and/zj/respectively.However,/s/+/j/phonemesequencesinDutchareoftenrealizedas/sj/,likeinthewordhuisje(='littlehouse').Indialectsthatmergesandz[zj]oftenisrealizedas[sj].5)Therealizationofthe/r/phonemevariesconsiderablyfromdialecttodialect.In"standard"Dutch,/r/isrealizedas[r].Inmanydialectsitisrealizedasthevoiceduvularfricative[ʁ]orevenastheuvulartrill[ʀ].6)Therealizationofthe/ʋ/variesconsiderablyfromtheNortherntotheSouthernandBelgiumdialectsoftheDutchlanguage.IntheSouth,includingBelgium,itissometimesrealizedas[w].Some,mainlyHollandic,dialectsnearlypronounceitlike[v].
DutchConsonantswithExampleWords
Symbol
Example
IPA
IPA
orthography
Englishtranslation
p
pɛn
pen
'pen'
b
bit
biet
'beetroot'
t
tɑk
tak
'branch'
d
dɑk
dak
'roof'
k
kɑt
kat
'cat'
g
gol
goal
'goal'(sports)
m
mɛns
mens
'humanbeing'
n
nɛk
nek
'neck'
ŋ
ɛŋ
eng
'scary'
f
fits
fiets
'bicycle'
v
ovən
oven
'oven'
s
sɔk
sok
'sock'
z
zep
zeep
'soap'
ʃ
ʃɛf
chef
'boss,chief'
ʒ
ʒyʁi
jury
'jury'
x
ɑxt
acht
'eight'
ɣ
ɣaːn
gaan
'togo'
ʁ
ʁɑt
rat
'rat'
ɦ
ɦut
hoed
'hat'
ʋ
ʋɑŋ
wang
'cheek'
j
jɑs
jas
'coat'
l
lɑnt
land
'land/country'
ʔ
bəʔamə
beamen
'toconfirm'
Phonology
Dutchdevoicesallconsonantsattheendsofwords(e.g.afinal/d/becomes[t];tobecome'entsofworts'),whichpresentsaproblemforDutchspeakerswhenlearningEnglish.Thisispartlyreflectedinthespelling,thesingularhuishasthepluralhuizen(house(s))andduifbecomesduiven(dove).Theothercases,viz.‘p’/‘b’and‘d’/‘t’arealwayswrittenwiththevoicedconsonant,althoughadevoicedoneisactuallypronounced,e.g.sg.baard(beard),pronouncedasbaart,haspluralbaardenandsg.rib(rib),pronouncedasriphaspluralribben.Becauseofassimilation,oftentheinitialconsonantofthenextwordisalsodevoiced,e.g.hetvee(thecattle)is/(h)ətfe/.Thisprocessofdevoicingistakentoanextremeinsomeregions(Amsterdam,Friesland)withalmostcompletelossof/v/,/z/and/ɣ/.Furthersouththesephonemesarecertainlypresentinthemiddleofaword.Comparee.g.logenandloochen/loɣən/vs./loxən/.IntheSouth(i.e.Zeeland,BrabantandLimburg)andinFlandersthecontrastisevengreaterbecausethegbecomesapalatal.('softg').Thefinal'n'ofthepluralending-enisoftennotpronounced(asinAfrikaanswhereitisalsodroppedinthewrittenlanguage),exceptintheNorthEast(LowSaxon)andtheSouthWest(WestFlemish)wheretheendingbecomesasyllabicnsound.Dutchisastresslanguage,thestresspositionofwordsmatters.Stresscanoccuronanysyllablepositioninaword.Thereisatendencyforstresstobeatthebeginningofwords.Incompositewords,secondarystressisoftenpresent.Therearesomecaseswherestressistheonlydifferencebetweenwords.Forexamplevóórkomen(occur)andvoorkómen(prevent).MarkingthestressinwrittenDutchisoptional,neverobligatory,butsometimesrecommended.ThesyllablestructureofDutchis(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C).Manywords,likeinEnglish,beginwiththreeconsonants-e.g.straat(street).Therearewordsthatendinfourconsonants-e.g.herfst(autumn),ergst(worst),interessantst(mostinteresting),sterkst(strongest)-mostofthembeingadjectivesinthesuperlativeform.Historicalsoundchanges
Dutch(withtheexceptionoftheLimburgdialects)didnotparticipateinthesecondGermanic(HighGerman)SoundShift-compareGermanmachen/-x-/Dutchmaken,Englishmake,GermanPfanne/pf-/,Dutchpan,Englishpan,Germanzwei/ts-/,Dutchtwee,Englishtwo.Dutchunderwentafewchangesofitsown.Forexample,wordsin-oldor-oltlostthelinfavourofadiphthongasaresultofvocalisation.CompareEnglishold,Germanalt,Dutchoud.Germanic*/uː/turnedinto/y/throughpalatalization,whichsoundinturnbecameadiphthong/œy/,spelt〈ui〉.Long*/iː/alsodiphthongizedto/ɛi/,spelt〈ij〉.Thephoneme/ɡ/becameavoicedvelarfricative/ɣ/,oravoicedpalatalfricative/ʝ/(intheSouth:Flanders,Limburg).Grammar
LikeallothercontinentalWestGermaniclanguages,DutchhasawordorderthatismarkedlydifferentfromEnglish,whichpresentsaproblemforsomeAnglophoneslearningDutch.Asanillustration,considerasubtitlefromtheDutchreleaseof'StarTrek:Voyager'episode7X17,"WorkforcePartII":whenCaptainKathrynJaneway(KateMulgrew)warnshererstwhileromanticpartnerJaffen(JamesRead)nottogetinvolvedinashipboardbattle,herespondsinEnglish"I'vebeeninvolvedsincethedayImetyou."TheDutchsubtitleappropriatelyreads,"Ikdoealmeesindsikjeken,"whichtranslatesdirectlyas"IdoalreadywithsinceIyouknow."TheDutchwrittengrammarhassimplifiedoverthepast100years:casesarenowmainlyusedforthepronouns,suchasik(I),mij,me(me),mijn(my),wie(who),wiens(whosemasculinesingular),wier(whose,feminineorplural),althoughthelatterisquiteformalandrarelyusedinspeech,comparabletoEnglish‘whom’.Nounsandadjectivesarenotcaseinflected(exceptforthegenitiveofpropernouns(names):-'sor-').Inthespokenlanguagecasesandcaseinflectionshadalreadygraduallydisappearedfromamuchearlierdateon(probablythe15thcentury)asinmanycontinentalWestGermanicdialects.Inflectionofadjectivesisalittlemorecomplicated:nothingwithindefiniteneuternounsinsingularand-einallothercases:
eenmooihuis(abeautifulhouse)hetmooiehuis(thebeautifulhouse)mooiehuizen(beautifulhouses)demooiehuizen(thebeautifulhouses)eenmooievrouw(abeautifulwoman)
Morecomplexinflectionisstillfoundincertainlexicalizedexpressionslikedeheerdeshuizes(literally,themanofthehouse),etc.Theseareusuallyremnantsofcases(inthisinstance,thegenitivecasewhichisstillusedinGerman,cf.DerHerrdesHauses)andotherinflectionsnolongeringeneralusetoday.Insuchlexicalizedexpressionsremnantsofstrongandweaknounscanbefoundtoo,e.g.inhetjaardesHeren(AnnoDomini),where“-en”isactuallythegenitiveendingoftheweaknoun.Alsointhiscase,Germanretainsthisfeature.Dutchnounscantakeendingsforsize:-jeforsingulardiminutiveand-jesforpluraldiminutive.Betweenthesesuffixesandtheradicalcancomeextralettersdependingontheendingoftheword:
boom(tree)-boompjering(ring)-ringetjekoning(king)-koninkjetien(ten)-tientje(ateneuronote)
LikemostGermaniclanguages,Dutchformsnouncompounds,wherethefirstnounmodifiesthecategorygivenbythesecond,forexample:hondenhok(doghouse).UnlikeEnglish,wherenewercompoundsorcombinationsoflongernounsareoftenwritteninopenformwithseparatingspaces,Dutch(liketheotherGermaniclanguages)eitherusestheclosedformwithoutspaces,forexample:boomhuis(eng.treehouse)orhyphenated:VVD-coryfee(outstandingmemberoftheVVD,apoliticalparty).LikeGerman,Dutchallowsarbitrarilylongcompounds,butthelongertheyget,thelessfrequenttheytendtobe.ThelongestseriousentryintheVanDaledictionaryiswapenstilstandsonderhandeling(ceasefirenegotiation).Sometimeshottentottensoldatententententoonstellingsterreinen(hottentotsoldierstentsexhibitionterrains)isjocularlyquotedasthelongestDutchword(notethefourtimesconsecutiveten),butoutsidethisusageitactuallyneveroccurs.Notwithstandingofficialspellingrules,manyDutchpeoplenowadaystendtowritethepartsofacompoundseparately,whichissometimesdubbed“theEnglishdisease”.Vocabulary
LikeEnglish,DutchincludeswordsofGreekandLatinorigin.ItsnumberofRomance-basedloanwordsishigherthaninGerman,butmuchlowerthaninEnglish.Especiallyonthestreetsandinmanyprofessions,thereisasteadyincreaseofEnglishloanwords,ratheroftenpronouncedorappliedinadifferentway.Exceptfortheadverbsüberhauptandsowieso,thefewGermanloanwordsarerelativelyrarelyused.TheDutchvocabularyisoneoftherichestintheworldandcomprisesover350,000headwords.Writingsystem
DutchiswrittenusingtheLatinalphabet,(seeDutchalphabet).OneofthecluestorecognisethatapieceoftextiswritteninDutchistheoccurrenceofmanydoubledletters.Thishappensbothtovowelsandconsonants.Onecauseisthemanycompoundwordswherethesameletterendsonepartandbeginsthenextpart.AnothercauseisformedbyspellingdevicesusedtodistinguishthemanymorevowelsoundsintheDutchlanguage,thantherearevowellettersintheLatinalphabet(seeDutchorthography).Aprimeexampleisthewordvoorraaddoos(supplybox).Thediaeresis(calledtrema)isusedtomarkvowelsthatarepronouncedseparately.Inthemostrecentspellingreform,ahyphenhasreplacedthediaeresisincompoundwords(i.e.,ifthevowelsoriginatefromseparatewords,notfromprefixesorsuffixes),e.g.zeeëend(seaduck)isnowspelledzee-eend.Theacuteaccent(accentaigu)occursmainlyonloanwordslikecafé,butcanalsobeusedforemphasisortodifferentiatebetweentwoforms.Itsmostcommonuseistodifferentiatebetweentheindefinitearticle'een'(a,an)andthenumeral'één'(one);also'hé'(hey,alsowritten'hee').Thegraveaccent(accentgrave)isusedtoclarifypronunciation('hè'(what?,whatthe...?,tagquestion'eh?'),'bèta')andinloanwords('cassière'(cashier),'après-ski').Intherecentspellingreform,theaccentgravewasdroppedasstresssignonshortvowelsinfavouroftheaccentaigu(e.g.'wèl'waschangedto'wél').Otherdiacriticalmarkssuchasthecircumflexonlyoccuronafewwords,mostofthemloanwordsfromFrench.ThemostimportantdictionaryofthemodernDutchlanguageistheVanDalegrootwoordenboekderNederlandsetaal,morecommonlyreferredtoastheDikkevanDale("dik"isDutchfor"fat"or"thick"),oraslinguistsnicknamedit:DeVandaal(thevandal).However,itisdwarfedbythe"WoordenboekderNederlandschetaal",ascholarlyendeavourthattook147yearsfrominitialideatofirstedition,resultinginover45,000pages.TheofficialspellingisgivenbytheWetschrijfwijzeNederlandschetaal(LawonthewritingoftheDutchlanguage;Belgium1946,Netherlands1947;basedona1944spellingrevision;bothamendedinthe1990'saftera1995spellingrevision).TheWoordenlijstNederlandsetaal,morecommonlyknownas"hetgroeneboekje"(i.e."thelittlegreenbook",becauseofitscolour),isusuallyacceptedasaninformalexplanationofthelaw.However,theofficial2005spellingrevision,whichrevertedsomeofthe1995changesandmadenewones,hasbeenwelcomedwithadistinctlackofenthusiasminboththeNetherlandsandBelgium.Asaresult,theGenootschapOnzeTaal(SocietyOurLanguage)decidedtopublishanalternativelist,"hetwitteboekje"("thelittlewhitebook"),whichtriestosimplifysomecomplicatedrulesandoffersseveralpossiblespellingsformanycontestedwords.ThisalternativeortographyisfollowedbyanumberofmajorDutchmediaorganisationsbutmostlyignoredinBelgium.Dutchasaforeignlanguage
Thenumberofnon-nativespeakersofDutchwhovoluntarilylearnthelanguageissmall.ThisispartlybecauseDutchisnotgeographicallywidespreadandbecauseinitshomecountriestheNetherlandsandBelgiummostofitsspeakersareproficientinotherEuropeanlanguages.IntheNetherlandsGermanisspokenwithvaryinglevelsofproficiency(especiallyintheregionsborderingGermany)andthelanguageispartofthecorecurriculuminschoolsfor2-5years.InBelgium,Germanislesswidelyspoken,andnotalwaysrequired,butitstillspokenbyaconsiderablenumberofpeople.Frenchisalsotaughtfor2-6yearsintheNetherlands,butitisnotaswidelyspoken.InFlanders(Belgium)Frenchisrequiredfromage10to18(from8to18forDutch-languageschoolsinbilingualBrussels)andisverywidelyspoken,notsostrangewhenoneconsidersthatthesouthernhalfofBelgiumisFrancophone.Butontheotherhand,FrancophoneBelgiansarefarlessproficientinDutch;recently,WalloonschoolswereallowedtochoosetoteachEnglishasfirstforeignlanguage,insteadofDutch.IntheNetherlands,Englishistaughtinschoolsfromayoungage-occasionallyfromage11or12,andinFlandersfromtheageof13or14,buttypicallyuntilthecompletionofsecondaryeducation.Mostuniversitiesinthetwocountries,recognizingtheimportanceoftheEnglishlanguageinthemodernworld,continuetoteachthelanguagetothosestudentswhoneedtoimprovetheirskills.AsaresultEnglishisspokenthroughouttheNetherlandsandBelgiumwithmembersoftheyoungergenerationsometimesbeingfluentornearfluentspeakers.ThemajorityofthepopulationofbothcountriesspeakssomeEnglish.Somenon-nativeresidentsoftheNetherlandsandofBelgiumhaveneverlearnttospeakDutch,probablybecauseofaperceptionofitsdifficulties.Inaddition,nativeDutchspeakersthemselvesareoftensolinguisticallyproficient(orconsiderthemselvestobeso)thattheywilltrytohelpastrugglingDutchlearnerbyreplyinginhisorherown(second)language–usuallyEnglish,orinBelgiumalsoFrench.TheDutchoftenmakefunoftheirownlanguage—forexampleTomMeyer,aradiocommentator,usedtosayonairthat"Dutchisn'talanguage;it'sadiseaseofthethroat."PronunciationcanbeachallengeasmanyoftheDutchvowelsoundsaredifficultfornonnativespeakers.Diphthongssuchasthe"ui"soundinsuchwordsas"zuid"(south)or"huis"(house),the"eu"in"keuze"(choice)or"sleutel"(key),andthe"ij"soundinwordslike"mijt"(mite)or"wijn"(wine)presentdifficultiesandeventhoughsomeofthesewordsaresuperficiallyliketheirEnglishequivalentsthecorrectsoundisverydifferent.Itscohesivenesssometimesalsoproduceswordsthatmightbafflespeakersofotherlanguagesduetothehighamountofconsecutiveconsonants,suchastheword"angstschreeuw" (screaminfear),whichhasgrandtotalofeightinarow(ngstschr).Ithastobenotedthoughthatthepronunciationofawordcandiffergreatlyfromitswrittenform.Inthiscase,"angstschreeuw"actuallyfeatures6consonants(ng-s-t-s-ch-r)originatingfromtwodistinctlinkedwords("angst"and"schreeuw"),whichisreducedfurtherineverydaypronunciationbyblendingconsecutiveconsonantsintoonesound-e.g."ch"and"r".NativespeakersofGermanusuallyhavethebiggestadvantageofallpeoplewhenlearningDutchfromagrammarandvocabularypointofviewbutalmostalwaysstrugglewiththepronunciation.However,thoseresidentsorvisitorswhodolearnsomeDutchwillberewarded,notonlybytheextrafillipthisgivestotheirunderstandingofDutchhistoryandculture,butalsobecauseitwillenablethemtoconversewithpeopleinareasawayfromthebigcitieswhereotherlanguagesarelesscommonlyspokenandexperienceotherDutchculture.ExamplesofDutch
Translation
Phrase
IPA
Dutch
Nederlands
nedəɾlɑnts
Hello
Hoi/Hallo
ɦɔi/ɦɑlloː
Iam[...]
Ikben[...]
ɪkbɛn[...]
Mynameis[...]
Ikheet[...]
ɪkɦeːt[...]
Goodmorning
Goedemorgen
ɣudəmɔɾxən
Goodday
Goedendag
ɣudədɑx
Goodevening
Goedeavond
ɣudəaːvɔnt
Goodnight
Goedenacht
ɣudənɑxt
Good-bye
Dag/Totziens
dɑx/tɔtzins
Please
Alstublieft
ɑlstyblift
Youarewelcome
Graaggedaan
ɣɾaːxɣədaːn
Thankyou
Dankuwel
dɑnkyʋɛl
That
Dat
dɑt
Howmuch?
Hoeveel?
ɦuveːl
Yes
Ja/Jawel
jaː/jaːʋɛl
No
Nee/Neen
neː/neːn
Iwantthat,please
Doedatmaar,alstublieft
dudɑtmaːɾɑlstyblift
Whereisthetoilet?
Waarishettoilet?
ʋaːɾɪsɦəttʋɑlɛt
Generictoast
Proost
pɾoːst
DoyouspeakEnglish?
SpreektuEngels?
spɾeːktyɛŋəls?
Idon'tunderstand
Ikbegrijphetniet
ɪkbəxɾɛi̯pɦətniːt
I'msorry
Hetspijtme
ɦətspɛi̯tmə
Idon'tknow
Ikweethetniet
ɪkʋeːtɦətnit
PopularmisconceptionsaboutDutch
ThelanguageofFlanders:"Dutch"or"Flemish"?
Dutchisthelanguageofgovernment,education,anddailylifeinbothTheNetherlandsandFlanders,thenorthernpartofBelgium.ThereisnoofficiallyrecognizedlanguagecalledFlemish,and,boththeDutchandBelgiangovernmentsadheretothestandardDutch(AlgemeenNederlands)definedbytheTaalunie(Languageunion).TheactualdifferencesbetweenthespokenlanguageofDutchandBelgianspeakers,arecomparabletothedifferencesbetweenAmericanandBritishEnglish.SomeofthesedifferencesarerecognizedbytheTaalunieandmajordictionariesasbeinginterchangeablyvalid,althoughsomedictionariesandgrammarsmaymarkthemasbeingmoreprevalentinoneregionortheother.NotethatunlikebetweenAmericanandBritishEnglish,aboundarymaybelooselyimpliedtofollowadifferentgeographicallinewithintheDutchlanguageareaaccordingtheprecisedistinctionofFlemish.TheuseofthewordFlemish(VlaamsinDutch)todescribethestandardDutchlanguageincludingitsvariationsprevalentinFlandersandusedthere,isfairlycommonintheNetherlandsandBelgium.FlemishisalsoacollectivetermoftenusedfortheDutchdialectsspokeninBelgium.However,Flemish,inalinguisticcontextreferstoamuchmorelimitednumberofDutchdialects.TheadjectiveFlemishforanythingconnectedto,originatinginordescribingFlanders,ledtotheuseofthesubstantivereferringtoDutchasusedbyitsnativespeakersinBelgium,andthisisthemeaninggiveninmostdictionaries,includingtheDutchVanDaledictionary.DutchisnotaGermandialect
DutchsimplycannotbecalledaGermandialect,onwhateverlevelofanalysiswechoosetoconsiderthematter.TheDutchstandardlanguage,bydefinition,cannotbeadialectofanotherstandardlanguage,inthiscaseStandardGerman.ThedialectgroupfromwhichDutchislargelyderived,LowFranconian,belongstothewholeofcontinentalWestGermanicdialects.Thiswholeissometimesimpreciselyindicatedwiththeword"German",butitmightaswellbecalled"Dutch".IndeedtheLowFranconiandialectsandlanguagesaremorphologicallyclosertotheoriginalformofWesternGermanicthantheHighGermanfromwhichstandardGermanisderived.Nointrinsicqualityofwholeofthecomponentdialectsfavoursonestandardovertheother:bothwererivalsandhistoricalcontingencydecidedtherangeoftheiruse.Thestateborderdoesnotreflectdialectalsubdivisions.OnlynowthatthedialectcontinuumofcontinentalWestGermanichasbeenbrokenbythe19thcenturyintroductionofmasseducation,therespectiverangeshavebeenfixed;inthe18thcenturystandardDutchwasstillusedasthenormalwrittenstandardintheLowerRhine,thecountyofBentheimandEastFrisia,nowallpartofGermany.Dutchisnotthemostclosely-relatedlanguagetoEnglish
DutchdoeshavearelativelyclosegeneticrelationshiptothedescendantsofMiddleEnglish(suchasModernEnglishandScots),sincebothbelongtotheWestGermaniclanguagefamilyandbothlackmostoralloftheHighGermanconsonantshiftthatcharacterizesthedescendantsofMiddleHighGerman(suchasModernGermanandYiddish).Frisian,however,isevenmorecloselyrelatedtotheMiddle-EnglishdescendantsthanDutch.LanguagesanddialectssharingsomefeaturesfoundinEnglishandFrisianarereferredtoasAnglo-Frisianlanguagesor,sometimes,Ingvaeoniclanguages.PennsylvaniaDutchisnotaformofDutch
PennsylvaniaDutch,calledDeitschbyitsspeakers,isnotaformofDutch.ThewordDutchhashistoricallybeenusedforallspeakersofcontinentalWestGermaniclanguages,including,theDutch,Flemish,Austrians,Germans,andtheGerman-speakingSwiss.ItiscognatewithDutcharchaismDiets(meaning"Dutch")andtheGermanautodesignationdeutsch.TheuseofthenameDutchexclusivelyforthelanguageofBelgium,orfortheinhabitantsoftheNetherlandsorsomeofitsformercolonies,datesfromtheearly16thcentury.PennsylvaniaDutchisaWestCentralGermanvariety.Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language"
ThisreferencearticleismainlyselectedfromtheEnglishWikipediawithonlyminorchecksandchanges(seewww.wikipedia.orgfordetailsofauthorsandsources)andisavailableundertheGNUFreeDocumentationLicense.SeealsoourDisclaimer.
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