Scholar - Wikipedia

A scholar is a person who pursues academic and intellectual activities, particularly academics who apply their intellectualism into expertise in an area of ... Scholar FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Personwhopursuesacademicandintellectualactivities Forotheruses,seeScholar(disambiguation). TheScholarandHisBooksbyGerbrandvandenEeckhout Ascholarisapersonwhopursuesacademicandintellectualactivities,particularlyacademicswhoapplytheirintellectualismintoexpertiseinanareaofstudy.Ascholarcanalsobeanacademic,whoworksasaprofessor,teacher,orresearcheratauniversity.Anacademicusuallyholdsanadvanceddegreeoraterminaldegree,suchasamaster'sdegreeoradoctorate(PhD).Independentscholars,suchasphilosophersandpublicintellectualsworkoutsideoftheacademy,yetpublishinacademicjournalsandparticipateinpublicdiscussionsofsocietalproblems. Contents 1Definitions 2Roleinsociety 3Independentscholars 4Seealso 5References 6Externallinks Definitions[edit] IncontemporaryEnglishusage,thetermscholarsometimesisequivalenttothetermacademic,anddescribesauniversity-educatedmanorwomanwhohasachievedintellectualmasteryofanacademicdiscipline,asinstructorandasresearcher.Moreover,beforetheestablishmentofuniversities,thetermscholaridentifiedanddescribedanintellectualpersonwhoseprimaryoccupationwasprofessionalresearch.In1847,ministerEmanuelVogelGerhartspokeoftheroleofthescholarinsociety: [A]scholar[isone]whosewholeinwardintellectualandmoralbeinghasbeensymmetricallyunfolded,disciplinedandstrengthenedundertheinfluenceoftruth...Noonefacultyshouldbedrawnouttotheneglectofothers.Thewholeinnermanshouldbeunfoldedharmoniously.[1] Gerhartarguedthatascholarcannotbefocusedonasinglediscipline,contendingthatknowledgeofmultipledisciplinesisnecessarytoputeachintocontextandtoinformthedevelopmentofeach: [T]obeascholarinvolvesmorethanmerelearning...Agenuinescholarpossessessomethingmore:hepenetratesandunderstandstheprincipleandlawsoftheparticulardepartmentofhumanknowledgewithwhichheprofessesacquaintance.HeimbibesthelifeofScience...[and]hismindistransfusedandmouldedbyitsenergyandspirit.[1] A2011examinationoutlinedthefollowingattributescommonlyaccordedtoscholarsas"describedbymanywriters,withsomeslightvariationsinthedefinition":[2] Thecommonthemesarethatascholarisapersonwhohasahighintellectualability,isanindependentthinkerandanindependentactor,hasideasthatstandapartfromothers,ispersistentinherquestfordevelopingknowledge,issystematic,hasunconditionalintegrity,hasintellectualhonesty,hassomeconvictions,andstandsalonetosupporttheseconvictions.[2] Scholarsmayrelyonthescholarlymethodorscholarship,abodyofprinciplesandpracticesusedbyscholarstomaketheirclaimsabouttheworldasvalidandtrustworthyaspossible,andtomakethemknowntothescholarlypublic.Itisthemethodsthatsystemicallyadvancetheteaching,research,andpracticeofagivenscholarlyoracademicfieldofstudythroughrigorousinquiry.Scholarshipiscreative,canbedocumented,canbereplicatedorelaborated,andcanbeandispeer-reviewedthroughvariousmethods.[3] Roleinsociety[edit] Scholarshavegenerallybeenupheldascreditablefiguresofhighsocialstanding,whoareengagedinworkimportanttosociety.InImperialChina,intheperiodfrom206 BCuntilAD 1912,theintellectualsweretheScholar-officials("Scholar-gentlemen"),whowerecivilservantsappointedbytheEmperorofChinatoperformthetasksofdailygovernance.SuchcivilservantsearnedacademicdegreesbymeansofImperialexamination,andalsowereskilledcalligraphers,andknewConfucianphilosophy.HistorianWing-TsitChanconcludesthat: Generallyspeaking,therecordofthesescholar-gentlemenhasbeenaworthyone.Itwasgoodenoughtobepraisedandimitatedin18thcenturyEurope.Nevertheless,ithasgivenChinaatremendoushandicapintheirtransitionfromgovernmentbymentogovernmentbylaw,andpersonalconsiderationsinChinesegovernmenthavebeenacurse.[4] InJoseonKorea(1392–1910),theintellectualsweretheliterati,whoknewhowtoreadandwrite,andhadbeendesignated,asthechungin(the"middlepeople"),inaccordancewiththeConfuciansystem.Socially,theyconstitutedthepetitebourgeoisie,composedofscholar-bureaucrats(scholars,professionals,andtechnicians)whoadministeredthedynasticruleoftheJoseondynasty.[5] Inhis1847address,Gerhartassertedthatscholarshaveanobligationtoconstantlycontinuetheirstudiessoastoremainawareofnewknowledgebeinggenerated,[1]andtocontributetheirowninsightstothebodyofknowledgeavailabletoall: Theprogressofscienceinvolvesmomentousinterests.Itmeritstheattentionofallsincereloversoftruth.Every...scholarisunderobligationstocontributetowardstheever-progressiveunfoldingofitsrichesandpower.[They]...shouldcombinetheirenergiestobringtoviewwhathaseludedthekeenvisionofthosemenofnobleintellectualstaturewhohavelivedanddiedbeforethem.[1] Manyscholarsarealsoprofessorsengagedintheteachingofothers.Inanumberofcountries,thetitle"researchprofessor"referstoaprofessorwhoisexclusivelyormainlyengagedinresearch,andwhohasfewornoteachingobligations.Forexample,thetitleisusedinthissenseintheUnitedKingdom(whereitisknownasresearchprofessoratsomeuniversitiesandprofessorialresearchfellowatsomeotherinstitutions)andinnorthernEurope. Researchprofessorisusuallythemostseniorrankofaresearch-focusedcareerpathwayinthosecountries,andregardedasequaltotheordinaryfullprofessorrank.Mostoftentheyarepermanentemployees,andthepositionisoftenheldbyparticularlydistinguishedscholars;thusthepositionisoftenseenasmoreprestigiousthananordinaryfullprofessorship.ThetitleisusedinasomewhatsimilarsenseintheUnitedStates,withtheexceptionthatresearchprofessorsintheUnitedStatesareoftennotpermanentemployeesandoftenmustfundtheirsalaryfromexternalsources,[6]whichisusuallynotthecaseelsewhere. Independentscholars[edit] Anindependentscholarisanyonewhoconductsscholarlyresearchoutsideuniversitiesandtraditionalacademia.In2010,twelvepercentofUShistoryscholarswereindependent.[7]IndependentscholarstypicallyhaveaMaster'sdegreeorPhD.[8] Inhistory,independentscholarscanbedifferentiatedfrompopularhistoryhostsfortelevisionshowsandamateurhistorians"bytheleveltowhichtheirpublicationsutilizetheanalyticalrigourandacademicwritingstyle".[9] Inpreviouscenturies,someindependentscholarsachievedrenown,suchasSamuelJohnsonandEdwardGibbonduringtheeighteenthcenturyandCharlesDarwinandKarlMarxinthenineteenthcentury,andSigmundFreud,SirStevenRuncimanandRobertDavidsohninthetwentiethcentury.Aswell,therewasatraditionofthemanofletters,suchasEvelynWaugh.Theterm"manofletters"derivesfromtheFrenchtermbelletristorhommedelettresbutisnotsynonymouswith"anacademic".[10][11]Inthe17thand18thcenturies,thetermBelletrist(s)cametobeappliedtotheliterati:theFrenchparticipantsin—sometimesreferredtoas"citizens"of—theRepublicofLetters,whichevolvedintothesalonaimedatedification,education,andculturalrefinement. IntheUnitedStates,aprofessionalassociationexistsforindependentscholars:thisassociationistheNationalCoalitionofIndependentScholars.InCanada,theequivalentprofessionalassociationistheCanadianAcademyofIndependentScholars(inassociationwithSimonFraserUniversity).Similarorganizationsexistaroundtheworld.Membershipinaprofessionalassociationgenerallyentailsadegreeofpost-secondaryeducationandestablishedresearch.[12][13]Whenindependentscholarsparticipateinacademicconferences,theymaybereferredtoasanunaffiliatedscholar,sincetheydonotholdapositioninauniversityorotherinstitution. Whileindependentscholarsmayearnanincomefrompart-timeteaching,speakingengagements,orconsultantwork,theUniversityofBritishColumbiacallsearninganincomethebiggestchallengeofbeinganindependentscholar.[14]Duetochallengesofmakingalivingasascholarwithoutanacademicposition,"[m]anyindependentscholarsdependonhavingagainfullyemployedpartner".[15]Togetaccesstolibrariesandotherresearchfacilities,independentscholarshavetoseekpermissionfromuniversities.[16] WriterMeganKateNelson'sarticle"StopCallingMeIndependent"saystheterm"marginalizesunaffiliatedscholars"andisunfairlyseenasanindicatorof"professionalfailure".[17]RebeccaBodenheimersaysthatindependentscholarslikeherattendingconferenceswhodonothaveauniversitynameontheirofficialnamebadgefeellikethe"independentscholar"termisperceivedasa"signalthatascholariseitherunwantedbytheacademyorunwillingtocommittothesacrificesnecessarytosucceedasanacademic."[18] Seealso[edit] Category:Scholars-Thecategoryofscholars,peoplewhostudyafield Scholarism(學民思潮)HongKongpoliticalmovement Scholarship Scholasticism Autodidacticism Citizenscience References[edit] ^abcdEmanuelVogelGerhart,TheProperVocationofaScholar:AnAddress,DeliveredattheOpeningoftheNewDiagnothianHall(July2,1847). ^abAfafIbrahimMeleis,TheoreticalNursing:DevelopmentandProgress(2011),p.17. ^Aacn.nche.edu,Retrieved15OCT2012. ^CharlesAlexanderMoore,ed.(1967).TheChineseMind:EssentialsofChinesePhilosophyandCulture.UofHawaiiPress.p. 22.ISBN 9780824800758.CS1maint:extratext:authorslist(link) ^TheKoreaFoundation(February12,2016).Koreana-Winter2015.pp. 73–74.ISBN 9791156041573. ^ClassificationofRanksandTitles. ^"IndependentScholars".history.ubc.ca.UBC.Retrieved23March2020. ^"IndependentScholars".history.ubc.ca.UBC.Retrieved23March2020. ^"IndependentScholars".history.ubc.ca.UBC.Retrieved23March2020. ^TheOxfordEnglishReferenceDictionarySecondEdition,(1996)p.130. ^TheNewCassel'sFrench–English,English–FrenchDictionary(1962)p.88. ^Gross,Ronald(1993).TheIndependentScholar'sHandbook.Berkeley,CA:TenSpeedPress.ISBN 0-89815-521-5. ^Gross,Ronald(1991).PeakLearning:HowtoCreateYourOwnLifelongEducationProgramforPersonalEnlightenmentandProfessionalSuccess.NewYorkCity:J.P.Tarcher.ISBN 0-87477-957-X. ^"IndependentScholars".history.ubc.ca.UBC.Retrieved23March2020. ^"IndependentScholars".history.ubc.ca.UBC.Retrieved23March2020. ^"IndependentScholars".history.ubc.ca.UBC.Retrieved23March2020. ^Nelson,Megan(8October2017)."StopCallingMeIndependent".TheChronicle.ChronicleofHigherEducation.Retrieved23March2020. ^Bodenheimer,Rebecca(29August2017)."ThePlightoftheIndependentScholar".insidehighered.com.InsideHigherEd.Retrieved23March2020. Externallinks[edit] LookupscholarinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. 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