Monsanto - Wikipedia

The Monsanto Company was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri. Monsanto FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Americanmultinationalagriculturalbiotechnology,seed,andagrochemicalcompany Forotheruses,seeMonsanto(disambiguation). MonsantoCompanyTypeSubsidiaryIndustryAgribusinessFoundedSeptember 26,1901;120yearsago (1901-09-26)Reformedin2000(spunofffromPharmacia&Upjohn)FounderJohnFrancisQueenyDefunctJune 7,2018;3yearsago (2018-06-07)FateAcquiredbyBayerHeadquartersCreveCoeur,Missouri,U.S.KeypeopleHughGrant(Chairman,President,&CEO)PierreCourduroux(VicePresident&CFO)ProductsHerbicidesCropSeedsGMOsOwnerBayerFootnotes /references[1] TheMonsantoCompany(/mɒnˈsæntoʊ/)wasanAmericanagrochemicalandagriculturalbiotechnologycorporationfoundedin1901andheadquarteredinCreveCoeur,Missouri.Monsanto'sbestknownproductisRoundup,aglyphosate-basedherbicide,developedinthe1970s.Laterthecompanybecameamajorproducerofgeneticallyengineeredcrops.In2018,thecompanyranked199thontheFortune500ofthelargestUnitedStatescorporationsbyrevenue.[2] Monsantowasoneoffourgroupstointroducegenesintoplantsin1983,[3]andwasamongthefirsttoconductfieldtrialsofgeneticallymodifiedcropsin1987.Itwasoneofthetop10USchemicalcompaniesuntilitdivestedmostofitschemicalbusinessesbetween1997and2002,throughaprocessofmergersandspin-offsthatfocusedthecompanyonbiotechnology.Monsantowasoneofthefirstcompaniestoapplythebiotechnologyindustrybusinessmodeltoagriculture,usingtechniquesdevelopedbybiotechdrugcompanies.[4]: 2–6 Inthisbusinessmodel,companiesrecoupR&Dexpensesbyexploitingbiologicalpatents.[5][6][7][8] Monsanto'srolesinagriculturalchanges,biotechnologyproducts,lobbyingofgovernmentagencies,androotsasachemicalcompany,resultedincontroversies.ThecompanyoncemanufacturedcontroversialproductssuchastheinsecticideDDT,PCBs,AgentOrange,andrecombinantbovinegrowthhormone.Itsseedpatentingmodelwascriticizedasbiopiracyandathreattobiodiversity[9][10]asinvasivespecies.[11] InSeptember2016,GermanchemicalcompanyBayerannounceditsintenttoacquireMonsantoforUS$66billioninanall-cashdeal.[12]AftergainingUSandEUregulatoryapproval,thesalewascompletedonJune7,2018.ThenameMonsantowasnolongerused,butMonsanto'spreviousproductbrandnamesweremaintained.[13][14][15]InJune2020,BayeragreedtopaynumeroussettlementsinlawsuitsinvolvingMonsantoproductsRoundup,PCBsandDicamba.[16] Contents 1History 1.1"Pre-Pharmacia"Monsanto 1.1.11901toWWII 1.1.2Post-WWII 1.1.31960sand1970s 1.1.41980to1989:Becominganagribiotech 1.1.51990to1999:Movingintotheseedmarket&industryconsolidation 1.1.6"Pre-Pharmacia"Monsantooverview 1.2"Post-Pharmacia"Monsanto 1.2.12000to2009:Birthofthe"new"Monsanto 1.2.22010to2017:Furthergrowth,Syngenta 1.2.3"Post-Pharmacia"Monsantooverview 1.3SaletoBayer 2Productsandassociatedissues 2.1Currentproducts 2.1.1Glyphosateherbicides 2.1.2Cropseed 2.1.3Rowcrops 2.1.4India-specificissues 2.1.5Vegetables 2.2Formerproducts 2.2.1Polychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs) 2.2.2AgentOrange 2.2.3Bovinesomatotropin 2.3Uncommercializedproducts 2.3.1"Terminator"seeds 2.3.2GMwheat 3Legalaffairs 3.1Argentina 3.2Brazil 3.3China 3.4India 3.5UnitedKingdom 3.6UnitedStates 3.6.1PCBs 3.6.2Pollutedsites 3.6.3GMwheat 3.6.4CancerrisksofRoundup 3.6.5Dicambalawsuits 3.7Improperaccountingforincentiverebates 3.8Allegedghostwriting 4Governmentrelations 4.1UnitedStates 4.1.1Revolvingdoor 4.2UnitedKingdom 4.3EuropeanUnion 4.4Haiti 5Publicrelations 5.1Sponsorships 6Universityrelationships 7Awards 8Documentaries 9Seealso 10References 11Bibliography History[edit] Furtherinformation:TimelineofMonsanto "Pre-Pharmacia"Monsanto[edit] MonsantoCompanyInc.IndustryChemicals,biotechnology,pharmaceuticalsFounded1901;121 yearsago (1901)St.Louis,Missouri,U.S.FounderJohnFrancisQueenyFateAcquiredbyPharmacia&Upjohn[17]HeadquartersUnitedStates  1901toWWII[edit] In1901MonsantowasfoundedinSt.Louis,Missouri,asachemicalcompany.[18]ThefounderwasJohnFrancisQueeny,whoatage42wasa30‑yearveteranofthenascentpharmaceuticalindustry.[19]Hefundedthefirmwithhisownmoneyandcapitalfromasoftdrinkdistributor.Heusedforthecompanyname,themaidennameofhiswife,OlgaMéndezMonsanto,whowasascionessoftheSephardicJewishMonsantofamily.[20]Thecompany'sfirstproductswerecommodityfoodadditives,suchastheartificialsweetenersaccharin,caffeineandvanillin.[21]: 6 [22][23][24][25] MonsantoexpandedtoEuropein1919inapartnershipwithGraesser'sChemicalWorksatCefnMawr,Wales.Theventureproducedvanillin,aspirinanditsrawingredientsalicylicacid,andlaterrubberprocessingchemicals.Inthe1920s,MonsantoexpandedintobasicindustrialchemicalssuchassulfuricacidandPCBs.Queeny'ssonEdgarMonsantoQueenytookoverthecompanyin1928.In1926thecompanyfoundedandincorporatedatowncalledMonsantoinIllinois(nowknownasSauget).ItwasformedtoprovideminimalregulationandlowtaxesforMonsantoplantsatatimewhenlocaljurisdictionshadmostoftheresponsibilityforenvironmentalrules.ItwasrenamedinhonorofLeoSauget,itsfirstvillagepresident.[26] In1935,MonsantoboughttheSwannChemicalCompanyinAnniston,Alabama,andtherebyenteredthebusinessofproducingPCBs.[27][28][29] In1936,MonsantoacquiredThomas&HochwaltLaboratoriesinDayton,Ohio,toacquiretheexpertiseofCharlesAllenThomasandCarrollA.Hochwalt.TheacquisitionbecameMonsanto'sCentralResearchDepartment.[30]: 340–341 ThomasspenttherestofhiscareeratMonsanto,servingasPresident(1951–1960)andBoardChair(1960–1965).Heretiredin1970.[31]In1943,ThomaswascalledtoameetinginWashington,D.C.,withLeslieGroves,commanderoftheManhattanProject,andJamesConant,presidentofHarvardUniversityandchairmanoftheNationalDefenseResearchCommittee(NDRC).[32]TheyurgedThomastobecomeco-directoroftheManhattanProjectatLosAlamoswithRobertOppenheimer,butThomaswasreluctanttoleaveDaytonandMonsanto.[32]HejoinedtheNDRC,andMonsanto'sCentralResearchDepartmentbegantoconductrelatedresearch.[33]: vii Tothatend,MonsantooperatedtheDaytonProject,andlaterMoundLaboratories,andassistedinthedevelopmentofthefirstnuclearweapons.[32] Post-WWII[edit] In1946,Monsantodevelopedandmarketed"All"laundrydetergent,whichtheysoldtoLeverBrothersin1957.[34]In1947,itsstyrenefactorywasdestroyedintheTexasCityDisaster.[35]In1949,MonsantoacquiredAmericanViscoseCorporationfromCourtaulds.In1954,MonsantopartneredwithGermanchemicalgiantBayertoformMobayandmarketpolyurethanesintheUnitedStates.[36] MonsantobeganmanufacturingDDTin1944,alongwithsome15othercompanies.Thisinsecticidewascriticaltothefightagainstmalaria-transmittingmosquitoes.DuetoDDT'stoxicity,itwasbannedintheUnitedStatesin1972. In1977,MonsantostoppedproducingPCBs;CongressbannedPCBproductiontwoyearslater.[37][38] 1960sand1970s[edit] Inthemid‑1960s,WilliamStandishKnowlesandhisteaminventedawaytoselectivelysynthesizeenantiomersviaasymmetrichydrogenation.Thiswasthefirstmethodforthecatalyticproductionofpurechiralcompounds.[39]Knowles'teamdesignedthe"firstindustrialprocesstochirallysynthesizeanimportantcompound"—L‑dopa,whichisusedtotreatParkinson'sdisease.[40]In2001,KnowlesandRyōjiNoyoriwontheNobelPrizeinChemistry.Inthemid-1960s,chemistsatMonsantodevelopedtheMonsantoprocessformakingaceticacid,whichuntil2000wasthemostwidelyusedproductionmethod.In1964,MonsantochemistsinventedAstroTurf(initiallyChemGrass).[41] Inthe1960sand1970s,MonsantowasaproducerofAgentOrangeforUnitedStatesArmedForcesoperationsinVietnam,andsettledoutofcourtinalawsuitbroughtbyveteransin1984.[42]: 6 In1968,itbecamethefirstcompanytostartmassproductionof(visible)light-emittingdiodes(LEDs),usinggalliumarsenidephosphide.From1968to1970,salesdoubledeveryfewmonths.Theirproducts(discreteLEDsandseven-segmentnumericdisplays)becameindustrystandards.Theprimarymarketsthenwereelectroniccalculators,digitalwatchesanddigitalclocks.[43]Monsantobecameapioneerofoptoelectronicsinthe1970s. Between1968and1974,thecompanysponsoredthePGAToureventinPensacola,Florida,whichwasrenamedtheMonsantoOpen. In1974,HarvardUniversityandMonsantosigneda10-yearresearchgranttosupportthecancerresearchofJudahFolkman,whichbecamethelargestsucharrangementevermade;medicalinventionsarisingfromthatresearchwerethefirstforwhichHarvardalloweditsfacultytosubmitpatentapplication.[44][45] 1980to1989:Becominganagribiotech[edit] Monsantoscientistswereamongthefirsttogeneticallymodifyaplantcell,publishingtheirresultsin1983.[3]Fiveyearslaterthecompanyconductedthefirstfieldtestsofgeneticallymodifiedcrops.IncreasinginvolvementinagriculturalbiotechnologydatesfromtheinstallmentofRichardMahoneyasMonsanto'sCEOin1983.[18]ThisinvolvementincreasedundertheleadershipofRobertShapiro,appointedCEOin1995,leadingultimatelytothedispositionofproductlinesunrelatedtoagriculture.[18] In1985,MonsantoacquiredG.D.Searle&Company,alifesciencescompanythatfocusedonpharmaceuticals,agricultureandanimalhealth.In1993,itsSearledivisionfiledapatentapplicationforCelebrex,[46][47]whichin1998becamethefirstselectiveCOX‑2inhibitortobeapprovedbytheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministration(FDA).[48]CelebrexbecameablockbusterdrugandwasoftenmentionedasakeyreasonforPfizer'sacquisitionofMonsanto'spharmaceuticalbusinessin2002.[49] 1990to1999:Movingintotheseedmarket&industryconsolidation[edit] In1994,Monsantointroducedarecombinantversionofbovinesomatotropin,brand-namedPosilac.[50]MonsantolatersoldthisbusinesstoEliLillyandCompany. In1996,MonsantopurchasedAgracetus,thebiotechnologycompanythathadgeneratedthefirsttransgeniccotton,soybeans,peanutsandothercrops,andfromwhichMonsantohadbeenlicensingtechnologysince1991.[51] In1997,MonsantodivestedSolutia,acompanycreatedtocarryofftheresponsibilityforMonsanto'sPCBbusinessandassociatedliabilities,alongwithsomerelatedorganicchemicalproduction. Monsantofirstenteredthemaizeseedbusinesswhenitpurchased40%ofDekalbin1996;itpurchasedtheremainderofthecorporationin1998.[52]In1997,thecompanyfirstpublishedanannualreportcitingMonsanto'sLaw,abiotechnologicaltakeonMoore'sLaw,indicatingitsfuturedirectionsandexponentialgrowthintheuseofbiotechnology.Inthesameyear,CalifornianGMOcompanyCalgenewasacquired.[53][54]In1998,MonsantopurchasedCargill'sinternationalseedbusiness,whichgaveitaccesstosalesanddistributionfacilitiesin51countries.[52]In2005,itfinalizedthepurchaseofSeminisInc,aleadingglobalvegetableandfruitseedcompany,for$1.4billion.[55]Thismadeittheworld'slargestconventionalseedcompany. In1999,MonsantosoldoffNutraSweetCo.[18]InDecemberofthesameyear,MonsantoagreedtomergewithPharmacia&Upjohn,inadealvaluingthetransactionat$27billion.[56][18]Theagriculturaldivisionbecameawhollyownedsubsidiaryofthe"new"Pharmacia;Monsanto'smedicalresearchdivision,whichincludedproductssuchasCelebrex.[57] "Pre-Pharmacia"Monsantooverview[edit] Illustrationofthecompany'smergers,acquisitions,spin-offsandhistoricalpredecessors: PLLaboratories     LKB-produkterAB(Acq1968)     Pharmacia Biotech   KabiVitrum(Acq1990)     Kabi Pharmacia   Farmitalia(Acq1993)     Pharmacia(Merged 1995)   Upjohn(Merged1995)     Pharmacia & Upjohn   Monsanto(Est1901)     SwannChemicalCompany(Acq1935)         Thomas&HochwaltLaboratories(Acq1936)         AmericanViscose(Acq1949)         G.D.Searle&Company(Acq1985)         Agracetus(Acq1996)         DeKalbGeneticsCorporation(Acq1998)         Cargill(Seeddiv,Acq1998)     Monsanto   Pharmacia Corp.Acquired by Pfizer, 2002   "Post-Pharmacia"Monsanto[edit] 2000to2009:Birthofthe"new"Monsanto[edit] In2000:Pharmaciaspunoffitsagro-biotechsubsidiaryintoanewcompany,[18]the"newMonsanto",[58]focusedonfourkeyagriculturalcrops—soybeans,maize,wheatandcotton.[59]MonsantoagreedtoindemnifyPharmaciaagainstpotentialliabilitiesfromjudgmentsagainstSolutia.Asaresult,thenewMonsantocontinuedtobeapartytonumerouslawsuitsoverthepriorMonsanto.PharmaciawasboughtbyPfizerin2003.[60][61]) In2005,MonsantoacquiredEmergentGeneticsanditsStonevilleandNexGencottonbrands.Emergentwasthethird-largestU.S.cottonseedcompany,withabout12%oftheU.S.market.Monsanto'sgoalwastoobtain"astrategiccottongermplasmandtraitsplatform".[62] Alsoin2005,MonsantopurchasedSeminis,theCalifornia-basedworldleaderinvegetableseedproduction,for$1.4billion.[63]Seminisdevelopednewvegetablevarietiesusingadvancedcross-pollinationmethods.MonsantoindicatedthatSeminiswouldcontinuewithnon-GMdevelopment,whilenotrulingoutGMinthelongerterm.[64] InJune2007,MonsantopurchasedDeltaandPineLandCompany,amajorcottonseedbreeder,for$1.5billion.[65]AsaconditionforapprovalfromtheDepartmentofJustice,MonsantowasobligatedtodivestitsStonevillecottonbusiness,whichitsoldtoBayer,andtodivestitsNexGencottonbusiness,whichitsoldtoAmericot.[66]Monsantoalsoexitedthepig-breedingbusinessbysellingMonsantoChoiceGeneticstoNewshamGeneticsLCinNovember,divestingitselfof"anyandallswine-relatedpatents,patentapplications,andallotherintellectualproperty".[67]: 108 In2007,MonsantoandBASFannouncedalong-termagreementtocooperateintheresearch,development,andmarketingofnewplantbiotechnologyproducts.[68] In2008,MonsantopurchasedDutchseedcompanyDeRuiterSeedsfor€546million,[69]andsolditsPOSILACbovinesomatotropinbrandandrelatedbusinesstoElancoAnimalHealth,adivisionofEliLilly&Co,inAugustfor$300millionplus"additionalcontingentconsideration".[70] 2010to2017:Furthergrowth,Syngenta[edit] In2012,Monsantopurchasedfor$210millionPrecisionPlantingInc.,acompanythatproducedcomputerhardwareandsoftwaredesignedtoenablefarmerstoincreaseyieldandproductivitythroughmorepreciseplanting.[71] MonsantopurchasedSanFrancisco-basedClimateCorpfor$930millionin2013.[72]ClimateCorpmakeslocalweatherforecastsforfarmersbasedondatamodellingandhistoricaldata;iftheforecastswerewrong,thefarmerwascompensated.[73] InMay2013,aworldwideprotestagainstMonsantocorporation,calledMarchAgainstMonsanto,washeldinover400cities.[74][75]AsecondprotesttookplaceinMay2014. MonsantotriedtoacquireSwissagro-biotechnologyrivalSyngentaforUS$46.5billionin2015,butfailed.[76]InthatyearMonsantowastheworld'sbiggestsupplierofseeds,controlling26%oftheglobalseedmarket(DuPontwassecondwith21%).[77]MonsantowastheonlymanufacturerofwhitephosphorusformilitaryuseintheUS.[78] "Post-Pharmacia"Monsantooverview[edit] ChartofMonsanto'smergers,acquisitions,spin-offsandhistoricalpredecessors: Monsanto(SpunofffromPharmacia&Upjohn2000)     EmergentGenetics(Acq2005)         Seminis(Acq2005)         Icoria,Inc.(Selectedassets,Acq2005)         Delta&PineLandCompany(Acq2007)         Monsanto'sAsiasubsidiaries[79](SoldtoDevgen,2007)         MonsantoChoiceGenetics[80](SoldtoNewshamGenetics,2007)         DeRuiterSeeds(Acq2008)         AgroesteSementes[81](Acq2008)         Monsanto'sDairyProductBusiness[82](SoldtoEliLilly&Co,2008)         AlyParticipacoesLtda[83](Acq2008)     CanaVialisS.A.     AlellyxS.A.                 Monsanto'sGlobalSunflowerAssets[84](SoldtoSyngenta,2009)         Divergence,Inc.[85](Acq2011)         Beeologics[86](Acq2011)         PrecisionPlantingInc.(Acq2012)         ClimateCorp(Acq2013)     640Labs[87](Acq2014)             Agradis,Inc.[88](Selectassets,Acq2013)         RosettaGreenLtd[89](Acq2013)         ChannelBioCorp[90](Acq2004)     StoneSeeds[91](Acq2005)     TrelaySeeds[91](Acq2005)     StewartSeeds[91](Acq2005)     FontanelleHybrids[91](Acq2005)         SpecialtyHybrids[91](Acq2005)         NC+Hybrids,Inc.[92](Acq2005)         HeritageSeeds[93](Acq2006)         GoldCountrySeed,Inc.[93](Acq2006)         CampbellSeed(Seedmarketingandsalesbusiness,Acq2006)         TrislerSeedFarms[94](Acq2006)         KrugerSeedCompany[94](Acq2006)         SiebenHybrids[94](Acq2006)         DienerSeeds[94](Seedmarketingandsalesbusinesses,Acq2006)     American Seeds, Inc.   PoloniSemences[95](Acq2007)     Charentaismelonbreedingcompany[95](Acq2007)     International Seed Group, Inc.   Monsanto Inc.   SaletoBayer[edit] InSeptember2016,Monsanto(currentownerofMiracleGro)agreedtobeacquiredbyBayerforUS$66billion.[96][97]Inanefforttoreceiveregulatoryclearanceforthedeal,Bayerannouncedthesaleofsignificantportionsofitscurrentagriculturebusinesses,includingitsseedandherbicidebusinesses,toBASF.[98][99] ThedealwasapprovedbytheEuropeanUniononMarch21,2018,[100][101]andapprovedintheUnitedStatesonMay29,2018.[102]ThesaleclosedonJune7,2018;BayerannounceditsintenttodiscontinuetheMonsantoname,withthecombinedcompanyoperatingsolelyundertheBayerbrand.[103][104] Underthetermsofmerger,BayerpromisedtomaintainMonsanto’smorethan9,000U.S.jobsandadd3,000newU.S.high-techpositions.[105] Theprospectivemergerpartiessaidatthetimethecombinedagriculturebusinessplannedtospend$16billiononresearchanddevelopmentoverthenextsixyearsandatleast$8billiononresearchanddevelopmentinUnitedStates.[106] BayerwouldalsoestablishtheirnewglobalSeeds&TraitsandNorthAmericancommercialheadquartersinSt.Louis,Missouri.[107] Productsandassociatedissues[edit] Currentproducts[edit] Glyphosateherbicides[edit] Seealso:Glyphosate Followingits1970introduction,Monsanto'slastcommerciallyrelevantUnitedStatespatentontheherbicideglyphosate(brandnameRoundUp)expiredin2000.Glyphosatehassincebeenmarketedbymanyagrochemicalcompanies,invarioussolutionstrengthsandwithvariousadjuvants,underdozensoftradenames.[108][109][110][111]Asof2009,glyphosaterepresentedabout10%ofMonsanto'srevenue.[112]Roundup-relatedproducts(whichincludegeneticallymodifiedseeds)representedabouthalfofMonsanto'sgrossmargin.[113] Cropseed[edit] Seealso:Hybridseed,Geneticallymodifiedcrops,Geneticallymodifiedfood,andGeneticallymodifiedfoodcontroversies Asof2015,Monsanto'slineofseedproductsincludedcorn,cotton,soyandvegetableseeds. Rowcrops[edit] ManyofMonsanto'sagriculturalseedproductsaregeneticallymodified,suchasforresistancetoherbicides,includingglyphosateanddicamba.Monsantocallsglyphosate-tolerantseedsRoundupReady.Monsanto'sintroductionofthissystem(plantingaglyphosate-resistantseedandthenapplyingglyphosateonceplantsemerged)allowedfarmerstoincreaseyieldbyplantingrowsclosertogether.[114]Withoutit,farmershadtoplantrowsfarenoughaparttoallowthecontrolofpost-emergentweedswithmechanicaltillage.[114]Farmerswidelyadoptedthetechnology—forexampleover80%ofmaize(Mon832),soybean(MON-Ø4Ø32-6),cotton,sugarbeetandcanolaplantedintheUnitedStatesareglyphosate-tolerant.MonsantodevelopedaRoundupReadygeneticallymodifiedwheat(MON71800)butendeddevelopmentin2004duetoconcernsfromwheatexportersabouttherejectionofgeneticallymodified(GM)wheatbyforeignmarkets.[115] TwopatentswerecriticaltoMonsanto'sGMsoybeanbusiness;oneexpiredin2011andtheotherin2014.[116]Thesecondexpirationmeantthatglyphosateresistantsoybeansbecame"generic".[114][117][118][119][120]Thefirstharvestofgenericglyphosate-tolerantsoybeanscamein2015.[121]Monsantobroadlylicensedthepatenttootherseedcompaniesthatincludeglyphosateresistancetraitintheirseedproducts.[122]About150companieshavelicensedthetechnology,[123]includingcompetitorsSyngenta[124]andDuPontPioneer.[125] MonsantoinventedandsellsgeneticallymodifiedseedsthatmakeacrystallineinsecticidalproteinfromBacillusthuringiensis,knownasBt.In1995Monsanto'spotatoplantsproducingBttoxinwereapprovedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,followingapprovalbytheFDA,makingitthefirstpesticide-producingcroptobeapprovedintheUnitedStates.[126]MonsantosubsequentlydevelopedBtmaize(MON802,MON809,MON863,MON810),Btsoybean[127]andBtcotton. Monsantoproducesseedthathasmultiplegeneticmodifications,alsoknownas"stackedtraits"—forinstance,cottonthatmakeoneormoreBtproteinsandisresistanttoglyphosate.Oneofthese,createdincollaborationwithDowChemicalCompany,iscalledSmartStax.In2011MonsantolaunchedtheGenuitybrandforitsstacked-traitproducts.[128] Asof2012,theagriculturalseedlineupincludedRoundupReadyalfalfa,canolaandsugarbeet;Btand/orRoundupReadycotton;sorghumhybrids;soybeanswithvariousoilprofiles,mostwiththeRoundupReadytrait;andawiderangeofwheatproducts,manyofwhichincorporatethenontransgenic"clearfield"imazamox-tolerant[129]traitfromBASF.[130] In2013MonsantolaunchedthefirsttransgenicdroughttolerancetraitinalineofcornhybridsbrandedDroughtGard.[131]TheMON87460traitisprovidedbytheinsertionofthecspBgenefromthesoilmicrobeBacillussubtilis;itwasapprovedbytheUSDAin2011[132]andbyChinain2013.[133] The"XtendCropSystem"includesseedgeneticallymodifiedtoberesistanttobothglyphosateanddicamba,andaherbicideproductincludingthosetwoactiveingredients.[134]InDecember2014,thesystemwasapprovedforuseintheUS.InFebruary2016,ChinaapprovedtheRoundupReady2Xtendsystem.[135]ThelackofEuropeanUnionapprovalledmanyAmericantraderstorejecttheuseofXtendsoybeansoverconcernsthatthenewseedswouldbecomemixedwithEU-approvedseeds,leadingEuropetorejectAmericansoybeanexports.[136] India-specificissues[edit] In2009,MonsantoscientistsdiscoveredinsectsthathaddevelopedresistancetotheBtCottonplantedinGujarat.MonsantocommunicatedthistotheIndiangovernmentanditscustomers,statingthat"Resistanceisnaturalandexpected,someasurestodelayresistanceareimportant.AmongthefactorsthatmayhavecontributedtopinkbollwormresistancetotheCry1AcproteininBollgardIinGujaratarelimitedrefugeplantingandearlyuseofunapprovedBtcottonseed,plantedpriortoGEACapprovalofBollgardIcotton,whichmayhavehadlowerproteinexpressionlevels."[137]ThecompanyadvisedfarmerstoswitchtoitssecondgenerationofBtcotton–BolgardII–whichhadtworesistancegenesinsteadofone,[138]thewidelyrecognisedbestpracticetoforestall,prevent,andcopewithanykindofpesticideresistance.[139][140][141][142][143][144][145]However,thisadvicewascriticized:"aninternalanalysisofthestatementoftheMinistryofEnvironmentandForestssaysit'appearsthatthiscouldbeabusinessstrategytophaseoutsinglegeneevents[thatis,thefirst-generationBollgardIproduct]andpromotedoublegenes[thesecondgenerationBollgardII]whichwouldfetchhigherprice.'"[146] Monsanto'sGMcottonseedwasthesubjectofNGOagitationbecauseofitshighercost.IndianfarmerscrossedGMvarietieswithlocalvarieties,usingplantbreeding,violatingtheiragreementswithMonsanto.[147]In2009,highpricesofBtCottonwereblamedforforcingfarmersofJhabuadistrictintodebtwhenthecropsdiedduetolackofrain.[148] Vegetables[edit] In2012Monsantowastheworld'slargestsupplierofnon-GEvegetableseedsbyvalue,withsalesof$800M.95%oftheresearchanddevelopmentforvegetableseedisinconventionalbreeding.Thecompanyconcentratesonimprovingflavor.[63]Accordingtotheirwebsitetheysell"4,000distinctseedvarietiesrepresentingmorethan20species".[149]Broccoli,withthebrandnameBeneforté,withincreasedamountsofglucoraphaninwasintroducedin2010followingdevelopmentbyitsSeminissubsidiary.[150] Formerproducts[edit] Polychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)[edit] Untilitendedproductionin1977,Monsantowasthesourceof99%ofthepolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)usedbyU.S.industry.[38]TheyweresoldunderbrandnamesincludingAroclorandSantotherm;thenameSantothermisstillusedfornon-chlorinatedproducts.[151][152]PCBsareapersistentorganicpollutant,andcausecancerinbothanimalsandhumans,amongotherhealtheffects.[153]PCBswereinitiallywelcomedduetotheelectricalindustry'sneedfordurable,safer(thanflammablemineraloil)coolingandinsulatingfluidforindustrialtransformersandcapacitors.PCBswerealsocommonlyusedasstabilizingadditivesinthemanufactureofflexiblePVCcoatingsforelectricalwiringandinelectroniccomponentstoenhancePVCheatandfireresistance.[154]Astransformerleaksoccurredandtoxicityproblemsarosenearfactories,theirdurabilityandtoxicitybecamerecognizedasseriousproblems.PCBproductionwasbannedbytheU.S.Congressin1979andbytheStockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutantsin2001.[38][155][156] AgentOrange[edit] Mainarticle:AgentOrange Monsanto,DowChemical,andeightotherchemicalcompaniesmadeAgentOrangefortheU.S.DepartmentofDefense.[42]: 6 Itwasgivenitsnamefromthecoloroftheorange-stripedbarrelsinwhichitwasshipped,andwasbyfarthemostwidelyusedoftheso-called"RainbowHerbicides".[157] Bovinesomatotropin[edit] Mainarticle:Bovinesomatotropin Monsantodevelopedandsoldrecombinantbovinesomatotropin(alsoknownasrBSTandrBGH),asynthetichormonethatincreasesmilkproductionby11–16%wheninjectedintocows.[158][159]InOctober2008,MonsantosoldthisbusinesstoEliLillyfor$300millionplusadditionalconsiderations.[160] TheuseofrBSTremainscontroversialwithrespecttoitseffectsoncowsandtheirmilk.[161] Insomemarkets,milkfromcowsthatarenottreatedwithrBSTissoldwithlabelsindicatingthatitisrBST-free:thismilkhasprovedpopularwithconsumers.[162]Inreactiontothis,inearly2008apro-rBSTadvocacygroupcalled"AmericanFarmersfortheAdvancementandConservationofTechnology"(AFACT),[163]madeupofdairiesandoriginallyaffiliatedwithMonsanto,formedandbeganlobbyingtobansuchlabels.AFACTstatedthat"absence"labelscanbemisleadingandimplythatmilkfromcowstreatedwithrBSTisinferior.[162] Uncommercializedproducts[edit] Monsantoalsodevelopednotabletechnologiesthatwerenotultimatelycommercialized. "Terminator"seeds[edit] Mainarticle:Geneticuserestrictiontechnology Geneticuserestrictiontechnology,colloquiallyknownas"terminatortechnology",producesplantswithsterileseeds.Thistraitwouldpreventthespreadofthoseseedsintothewild.Italsowouldpreventfarmersfromplantingseedstheyharvest,requiringthemtopurchaseseedforeveryplanting,allowingthecompanytoenforceitslicensingtermsviatechnology.Farmershavebeenbuyinghybridseedsforgenerations,insteadofreplantingtheirharvest,becausesecond-generationhybridseedsareinferior.Nevertheless,mostseedcompaniescontractonlywithfarmerswhoagreenottoplantharvestedseeds. Terminatortechnologyhasbeendevelopedbygovernmentallabs,universityresearchersandcompanies.[164][165][166]Thetechnologyhasnotbeenusedcommercially.[167][168]RumorsthatMonsantoandothercompaniesintendedtointroduceterminatortechnologycausedprotests,forexampleinIndia.[169][170] In1999,Monsantopledgednottocommercializeterminatortechnology.[167][171]TheDelta&PineLandCompanyofMississippiintendedtocommercializethetechnology,[166]butD&PLwasacquiredbyMonsantoin2007.[172] Monsanto"Terminatorseeds"werenevercommercializednorusedinanyfarmer'sfieldanywhereintheworld.Thepatentexpiredin2015.[173] GMwheat[edit] Mainarticle:Geneticallymodifiedwheat Monsantodevelopedseveralstrainsofgeneticallymodifiedwheat,includingglyphosate-resistantstrains,inthe1990s.FieldtestsweredoneintheUnitedStatesbetween1998and2005.[174]Asof2017,nogeneticallymodifiedwheathadbeenreleasedforcommercialuse.[175] Legalaffairs[edit] Mainarticle:Monsantolegalcases Monsantoengagedinhigh-profilelawsuits,asbothplaintiffanddefendant.Itdefendedlawsuitsmostlyoveritsproducts'healthandenvironmentaleffects.Monsantousedthecourtstoenforceitspatents,particularlyinagriculturalbiotechnology,anapproachsimilartothatofothercompaniesinthefield,suchasDupontPioneer[176][177]andSyngenta.[178]Monsantoalsobecameoneofthemostvilifiedlargecorporationsintheworld,overarangeofissuesinvolvingitsindustrialandagriculturalchemicalproducts,andGMseed.[179]InApril2018,justpriortoBayer'sacquisition,BayerindicatedthatimprovingMonsanto'sreputationrepresentedamajorchallenge.[180]ThatJune,BayerannounceditwoulddroptheMonsantonameaspartofacampaigntoregainconsumertrust.[179] Argentina[edit] ArgentinaapprovedRoundupReadysoyin1996.Between1996and2008soyproductiongrewfrom14millionacresto42millionacres.ThegrowthwasdrivenbyArgentineinvestors'interestinexportmarkets.[181]Theconsolidationledtoadecreaseinproductionofmanystaplessuchasmilk,rice,maize,potatoesandlentils.Asof2004,about150,000smallfarmershadleftthecountryside;asof2009,50%intheChacoregion.[181][182][183] TheGuardianreportedthataMonsantorepresentativehadsaid,"anyproblemswithGMsoyaweretodowithuseofthecropasamonoculture,notbecauseitwasGM.Ifyougrowanycroptotheexclusionofanyotheryouareboundtogetproblems."[182] In2005and2006,MonsantoattemptedtoenforceitspatentsonsoymealoriginatinginArgentinaandshippedtoSpainbyhavingSpanishcustomsofficialsseizethesoymealshipments.TheseizureswerepartofalargerattemptbyMonsantotoputpressureontheArgentiniangovernmenttoenforceMonsanto'sseedpatents.[184] In2013environmentalistgroupsobjectedtoaMonsantocornseedconditioningfacilityinMalvinasArgentinas,Córdoba.Neighboursobjectedtotheriskofenvironmentalimpact.Courtrulingssupportedtheproject,[185]butenvironmentalistgroupsorganiseddemonstrationsandopenedanonlinepetitionforthesubjecttobedecidedinapopularreferendum.[186]Thecourtrulingsstipulatedthatwhileconstructioncouldcontinue,thefacilitycouldnotbeginoperatinguntiltheenvironmentalimpactreportrequiredbylawhadbeendulypresented.[187] In2016MonsantoreachedanagreementwithArgentina'sgovernmentonsoybeanseedroyaltypayments.MonsantoagreedtogivetheArgentineSeedInstitute(Inase)oversightovercropsgrownfromMonsanto'sIntactageneticallymodifiedsoybeanseeds.Beforetheagreement,Argentinefarmersgenerallyavoidedroyaltiesbyusingseedsfrompreviousharvestsorpurchasedfromnon-registeredsuppliers.Inaseagreedtodelegatetestingtograinexchanges.About6millionsampletestsweretobeconductedannually.SeedsthatappeartobeGMOsmaybetestedagainusingapolymerasechainreactiontest.[188] Brazil[edit] BrazilisthesecondlargestproducerofGMOsoy.In2003GMsoywasfoundinfieldsplantedinthestateofRioGrandedoSul.[189]Thiswasacontroversialdecision,andinresponse,theLandlessWorkers'MovementprotestedbyinvadingandoccupyingseveralMonsantofarmplotsusedforresearch,trainingandseed-processing.[190]In2005BrazilpassedalawcreatingaregulatorypathwayforGMcrops. China[edit] MonsantowascriticizedbyChineseeconomistLarryLangforcontrollingtheChinesesoybeanmarket,andfortryingtodothesametoChinesecornandcotton.[191] India[edit] Mainarticle:Farmers'suicidesinIndia Inthelate1990sandearly2000s,publicattentionwasdrawntosuicidesbyindebtedfarmersfollowingcropfailures.[192]Forexample,intheearly2000s,farmersinAndhraPradesh(AP)wereineconomiccrisisduetohigh-interestratesandcropfailures,leadingtowidespreadunrestandfarmersuicides.[193]MonsantowasonefocusofprotestswithrespecttothepriceandyieldsofBtseed.In2005,theGeneticEngineeringApprovalCommittee,theIndianregulatoryauthority,releasedastudyonfieldtestsofcertainBtcottonstrainsinAPandruledthatMonsantocouldnotmarketthosestrainsinAPbecauseofpooryields.[194]Ataboutthesametime,thestateagricultureministerbarredthecompanyfromsellingBtcottonseed,becauseMonsantorefusedarequestbythestategovernmenttoprovidepayaboutRs4.5crore(aboutonemillionUS$)toindebtedfarmersinsomedistricts,andbecausethegovernmentblamedMonsanto'sseedsforcropfailures.[195]Theorderwaslaterlifted. In2006,APtriedtoconvinceMonsantotoreducethepriceofBtseeds.Unsatisfied,thestatefiledseveralcasesagainstMonsantoanditsMumbai-basedlicensee,MaharashtraHybridSeeds.[196]ResearchbyInternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitutefoundnoevidencesupportinganincreasedsuicideratefollowingtheintroductionofBtcottonandthatBtcotton.[197][198]Thereportstatedthatfarmersuicidespredatedcommercialintroductionin2002(andunofficialintroductionin2001)andthatsuchsuicideshadmadeupafairlyconstantportionoftheoverallnationalsuicideratesince1997.[198][199]ThereportconcludedthatwhileBtcottonmayhavebeenafactorinspecificsuicides,thecontributionwaslikelymarginalcomparedtosocio-economicfactors.[198][199]Asof2009,Btcottonwasplantedin87%ofIndiancotton-growingland.[200] CriticsincludingVandanaShivasaidthatthecropfailurescould"oftenbetracedto"Monsanto'sBtcotton,thattheseedsincreasedfarmerindebtednessandarguedthatMonsantomisrepresentedtheprofitabilityoftheirBtCotton,causinglossesleadingtodebt.[192][201][202][203]In2009,ShivawrotethatIndianfarmerswhohadpreviouslyspentaslittleas₹7(rupees)perkilogramwerenowpayingupto₹17,000perkiloperyearforBtcotton.[204]In2012theIndianCouncilofAgriculturalResearch(ICAR)andtheCentralCottonResearchInstitute(CCRI)statedthatforthefirsttimefarmersuicidescouldbelinkedtoadeclineintheperformanceofBtcotton,andadvised,"cottonfarmersareinadeepcrisissinceshiftingtoBtcotton.Thespateoffarmersuicidesin2011–12hasbeenparticularlysevereamongBtcottonfarmers."[205] In2004,inresponsetoanorderfromtheBombayHighCourttheTataInstituteproducedareportonfarmersuicidesinMaharashtrain2005.[206][207]Thesurveycited"governmentapathy,theabsenceofasafetynetforfarmers,andlackofaccesstoinformationrelatedtoagricultureasthechiefcausesforthedesperateconditionoffarmersinthestate."[206] Variousstudiesidentifiedtheimportantfactorsasinsufficientorriskycreditsystems,thedifficultyoffarmingsemi-aridregions,pooragriculturalincome,absenceofalternativeincomeopportunities,adownturnintheurbaneconomywhichforcednon-farmersintofarmingandtheabsenceofsuitablecounselingservices.[199][208][209]ICARandCCRIstatedthatthecostofcottoncultivationhadjumpedasaconsequenceofrisingpesticidecosts,whiletotalBtcottonproductioninthefiveyearsfrom2007to2012haddeclined.[205] UnitedKingdom[edit] Mainarticle:BrofiscinQuarry BrofiscinQuarrywasusedasawastesitefromabout1965to1972andacceptedwastefromBP,VeoliaandMonsanto.[210][211]A2005reportbyEnvironmentAgencyWales(EAW)foundthatthequarrycontainedupto75toxicsubstances,includingheavymetals,AgentOrangeandPCBs.[210][212] InFebruary2011,Monsantoagreedtohelpwiththecostsofremediation,butdidnotacceptresponsibilityforthepollution.[213][214]In2011,EAWandtheRhonddaCynonTafcouncilannouncedthattheyhaddecidedtoplaceanengineeredcapoverthewastemass,[215]andstatedthatthecostwouldbe£1.5million;previousestimateshadbeenashighas£100million.[212][216] UnitedStates[edit] PCBs[edit] Inthelate1960s,theMonsantoplantinSauget,Illinois,wasthenation'slargestproducerofpolychlorinatedbiphenyl(PCB)compounds,whichremainedinthewateralongDeadCreekthere.AnEPAofficialreferredtoSaugetas"oneofthemostpollutedcommunitiesintheregion"and"asoupofdifferentchemicals".[217] InAnniston,Alabama,plaintiffsina2002lawsuitprovideddocumentationshowingthatthelocalMonsantofactoryknowinglydischargedbothmercuryandPCB-ladenwasteintolocalcreeksforover40years.[218]In1969Monsantodumped45tonsofPCBsintoSnowCreek,afeederforChoccoloccoCreek,whichsuppliesmuchofthearea'sdrinkingwater,andburiedmillionsofpoundsofPCBinopen-pitlandfillslocatedonhillsidesabovetheplantandsurroundingneighborhoods.[219]InAugust2003,SolutiaandMonsantoagreedtopayplaintiffs$700milliontosettleclaimsbyover20,000Annistonresidents.[220] InJune2020,Bayerproposedpaying$650milliontosettlelocalPCBlawsuits,and$170milliontotheattorneys-generalofNewMexico,WashingtonandtheDistrictofColumbia.[16]MonsantowasacknowledgedatthetimeofthesettlementtohaveceasedmakingPCBsin1977,thoughStateImpactofPennsylvaniareportedthatthisdidnotstopPCBsfromcontaminatingpeoplemanyyearslater.[16]StateImpactofPennsylvaniastated"In1979,theEPAbannedtheuseofPCBs,buttheystillexistinsomeproductsproducedbefore1979.Theypersistintheenvironmentbecausetheybindtosedimentsandsoils.HighexposuretoPCBscancausebirthdefects,developmentaldelays,andliverchanges."OnNovember25,2020,howeverU.S.DistrictJudgeFernandoM.Olguinrejectedtheproposed$650millionsettlementfromBayerandallowedMonsanto-relatedlawsuitsinvolvingPCBtoproceed.[221] Pollutedsites[edit] AsofNovember2013,Monsantowasassociatedwithnine"active"Superfundsitesand32"archived"sitesintheUS,intheEPA'sSuperfunddatabase.[222]MonsantowassuedandsettledmultipletimesfordamagingthehealthofitsemployeesorresidentsnearitsSuperfundsitesthroughpollutionandpoisoning.[223][224] GMwheat[edit] In2013aMonsanto-developedtransgeniccultivarofglyphosate-resistantwheatwasdiscoveredonafarminOregon,growingasaweedor"volunteerplant".ThefinalOregonfieldtesthadoccurredin2001.AsofMay2013,theGMOseedsourcewasunknown.Volunteerwheatfromaformertestfieldtwomilesawaywastestedandwasnotfoundtobeglyphosate-tolerant.Monsantofacedpenaltiesupto$1millionoverpotentialviolationsofthePlantProtectionAct.Thediscoverythreatenedworld-leadingUSwheatexports,whichtotaled$8.1billionin2012.[225][226]ThiswheatvarietywasrarelyexportedtoEuropeandwasmorelikelydestinedforAsia.Monsantosaidithaddestroyedallthematerialitheldaftercompletingtrialsin2004anditwas"mystified"byitsappearance.[227]OnJune14,2013,theUSDAannounced:"Asoftoday,USDAhasneitherfoundnorbeeninformedofanythingthatwouldindicatethatthisincidentamountstomorethanasingleisolatedincidentinasinglefieldonasinglefarm.AllinformationcollectedsofarshowsnoindicationofthepresenceofGEwheatincommerce."[228]AsofAugust30,2013,whilethesourceoftheGMwheatremainedunknown,Japan,SouthKoreaandTaiwanhadallresumedplacingorders.[229] CancerrisksofRoundup[edit] MonsantohasfacedcontroversyintheUnitedStatesoverclaimsthatitsherbicideproductsmightbecarcinogens.Thereislimitedevidencethathumancancerriskmightincreaseasaresultofoccupationalexposuretolargeamountsofglyphosate,asinagriculturalwork,butnogoodevidenceofsuchariskfromhomeuse,suchasindomesticgardening.[230]Theconsensusamongnationalpesticideregulatoryagenciesandscientificorganizationsisthatlabeledusesofglyphosatehavedemonstratednoevidenceofhumancarcinogenicity.[231]OrganizationssuchastheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),theFoodandAgricultureOrganization,EuropeanCommission,CanadianPestManagementRegulatoryAgency,andtheGermanFederalInstituteforRiskAssessment[232]haveconcludedthatthereisnoevidencethatglyphosateposesacarcinogenicorgenotoxicrisktohumans.[citationneeded]However,oneinternationalscientificorganization,theInternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer(IARC),affiliatedwiththeWHO,hasmadeclaimsofcarcinogenicityinresearchreviews;in2015theIARCdeclaredglyphosate"probablycarcinogenic".[233] AsofOctober30,2019,therewere42,700plaintiffswhosaidthatglyphosateherbicidescausedtheircanceraftertheIARCreportin2015linkingglyphosatetocancerinhumans.[234][235][236][237]MonsantodeniesthatRoundupiscarcinogenic.[238][239] InMarch2017,40plaintiffsfiledalawsuitattheAlamedaCountySuperiorCourt,abranchoftheCaliforniaSuperiorCourt,askingfordamagescausedbythecompany'sglyphosate-basedweed-killers,includingRoundup,anddemandingajurytrial.[240]OnAugust10,2018,Monsantolostthefirstdecidedcase.DewayneJohnson,whohasnon-Hodgkin'slymphoma,wasinitiallyawarded$289millionindamagesafterajuryinSanFranciscosaidthatMonsantohadfailedtoadequatelywarnconsumersofcancerrisksposedbytheherbicide.Pendingappeal,theawardwaslaterreducedto$78.5million.[241][242]InNovember2018,Monsantoappealedthejudgement,askinganappellatecourttoconsideramotionforanewtrial.[242]AverdictontheappealwasdeliveredinJune2020upholdingtheverdictbutfurtherreducingtheawardto$21.5million.[243] OnMarch27,2019,MonsantowasfoundliableinafederalcourtforEdwinHardeman'snon-Hodgkin'slymphomaandorderedtopay$80millionindamages.AspokespersonforBayer,bythistimetheparentcompanyofMonsanto,saidthecompanywouldappealtheverdict.[244] OnMay13,2019,ajuryinCaliforniaorderedBayertopay$2billionindamagesafterfindingthatthecompanyhadfailedtoadequatelyinformconsumersofthepossiblecarcinogenicityofRoundup.[245]OnJuly26,2019,anAlamedaCountyjudgecutthesettlementto$86.7million,statingthatthejudgementbythejuryexceededlegalprecedent.[246] InJune2020,MonsantoacquisitorBayeragreedtosettleoverahundredthousandRoundupcancerlawsuits,agreeingtopay$8.8to$9.6billiontosettlethoseclaims,and$1.5billionforanyfutureclaims.Thesettlementdoesnotincludethreecasesthathavealreadygonetojurytrialsandarebeingappealed.[16] Dicambalawsuits[edit] FollowingalawsuitbyapeachfarmerallegingthatDicambausedasaweedkillerdriftedinthewindfromadjacentcropstodestroyhispeachorchards,aMissouritrialjuryfoundinFebruary2020thatMonsantoandcodefendantBASFwerenegligentindesignofDicambaandfailedtowarnfarmersabouttheproduct,awarding$15millionforlossesand$250millioninpunitivedamages.[247]OnFebruary14,2020,thejuryinvolvedinaMissourilawsuitinvolvingtreedamagecausedbydicambadriftruledagainstBayeranditsco-defendantBASFandfoundinfavorofBaderFarmsownerBillBader.[248]InJune2020,Bayeragreedtoasettlementofupto$400millionforall2015-2020cropyeardicambaclaims,notincludingthe$250millionjudgementwhichwasissuedtoBader.[16]OnNovember25,2020,U.S.DistrictJudgeStephenLimbaughJr.reducedthepunitivedamageamountintheBaderFarmscaseto$60million.[249] Improperaccountingforincentiverebates[edit] From2009to2011,Monsantoimproperlyaccountedforincentiverebates.TheactionsinflatedMonsanto'sreportedprofitby$31millionoverthetwoyears.Monsantopaid$80millioninpenaltiespursuanttoasubsequentsettlementwiththeUSSecuritiesandExchangeCommission.[250]MonsantomateriallymisstateditsconsolidatedearningsinresponsetolosingmarketshareofRounduptogenericproducers.Monsantooverhauleditsinternalcontrols.TwooftheirtopCPAsweresuspendedandMonsantowasrequiredtohire,attheirexpense,anindependentethics/complianceconsultantfortwoyears.[251] Allegedghostwriting[edit] Areviewofglyphosate'scarcinogenicpotentialbyfourindependentexpertpanels,withacomparisontotheIARCassessment,waspublishedinSeptember2016.UsingemailsreleasedinAugust2017byplaintiffs'lawyerswhoaresuingMonsanto,BloombergBusinessWeekreportedthat"Monsantoscientistswereheavilyinvolvedinorganizing,reviewing,andeditingdraftssubmittedbytheoutsideexperts."AMonsantospokespersonrespondedthatMonsantohadprovidedonlynon-substantivecosmeticcopyediting.[252] In2017,TheNewYorkTimesreportedthata2015articleattributedtoresearcherandcolumnistHenryI.MillerhadbeendraftedbyMonsanto.[253]Accordingtothereport,MonsantoaskedMillertowriteanarticlerebuttingthefindingsoftheInternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer,andheindicatedwillingnesstodoitifhe"couldstartfromahigh-qualitydraft".[253]ForbeslaterremovedMiller'sblogfromForbes.comandendedtheirrelationship.[254] Governmentrelations[edit] UnitedStates[edit] MonsantoregularlylobbiedtheUSgovernmentwith[255]expensesreaching$8.8millionin2008[256]and$6.3millionin2011.[257]$2millionwasspentonmattersconcerning"ForeignAgricultureBiotechnologyLaws,Regulations,andTrade".SomeUSdiplomatsinEuropeatothertimesworkeddirectlyforMonsanto.[258] California's2012Proposition37wouldhavemandatedthedisclosureofgeneticallymodifiedcropsusedintheproductionofCaliforniafoodproducts.Monsantospent$8.1millionopposingpassage,makingitthelargestcontributoragainsttheinitiative.Thepropositionwasrejectedbya53.7%majority.[259]LabelingisnotrequiredintheUS.[260][261] In2009MichaelR.Taylor,foodsafetyexpertandformerMonsantoVPforPublicPolicy[262][263][264]becameasenioradvisortotheFDACommissioner.[265] MonsantoisamemberoftheWashingtonD.CbasedBiotechnologyIndustryOrganization(BIO),theworld'slargestbiotechnologytradeassociation,whichprovides"advocacy,businessdevelopment,andcommunicationsservices."[266][267]Between2010and2011BIOspentatotalof$16.43milliononlobbying.[268][269] TheMonsantoCompanyCitizenshipFundakaMonsantoCitizenshipFundisapoliticalactioncommitteethatdonatedover$10milliontovariouscandidatesfrom2003to2013.[270][271][272][273][274] AsofOctober2013,MonsantoandDuPontCo.continuedbackingananti-labelingcampaign,spendingroughly$18million.ThestateofWashington,alongwith26otherstates,madeproposalsinNovembertorequireGMOlabeling.[275] Revolvingdoor[edit] IntheUSregulatoryenvironment,manyindividualsmovebackandforthbetweenpositionsinthepublicandprivatesectors,includingatMonsanto.CriticsarguedthattheconnectionsbetweenthecompanyandthegovernmentallowedMonsantotoobtainfavorableregulationsattheexpenseofconsumersafety.[276][277][278]Supportersofthepracticepointtothebenefitsofcompetentandexperiencedindividualsinbothsectorsandtotheimportanceofappropriatelymanagingpotentialconflictsofinterest.[279][280]: 16–23 Thelistofsuchpeopleincludes: LindaJ.Fisher—EPAassistantadministrator,thenMonsantoVPfrom1995to2000.thenEPAdeputyadministrator.[281] MichaelA.Friedman,MD—FDAdeputycommissioner.[282] EarleH.HarbisonJr.,CentralIntelligenceAgencyDeputyDirector,thenPresident,ChiefOperatingOfficer,andDirector,from1986to1993.[283] RobertHolifield—chiefofstaffofSenateAgricultureCommittee,thenpartnerinLincolnPolicyGroup.[284] MickeyKantor—UStraderepresentative,thenMonsantoboardmember.[281] BlancheLincoln—USSenatorandchairofAgricultureCommittee,thenfounderoflobbyingfirmLincolnPolicyGroup WilliamD.Ruckelshaus—EPAAdministrator,thenactingDirectoroftheFederalBureauofInvestigation,andthenDeputyAttorneyGeneraloftheUnitedStates,thenEPAadministrator,thenMonsantoBoardmember.[285] DonaldRumsfeld—SecretaryofDefenseandprevioussecretaryofSearle,aMonsantosubsidiary,for8years[286] MichaelR.Taylor—assistanttotheFDAcommissioner,thenattorneyforKing&Spalding,[287][288]thenFDAdeputycommissionerforpolicyonfoodsafetybetween1991and1994.[281]Hewasclearedofconflictofinterestaccusations.ThenhebecameMonsanto'sVPforPublicPolicy,[262][263][264]becomingSeniorAdvisortotheFDACommissionerfortheObamaadministration.[265] ClarenceThomas—SupremeCourtJusticewhoworkedasanattorneyforMonsantointhe1970s,thenwrotethemajorityopinioninJ.E.M.AgSupply,Inc.v.PioneerHi-BredInternational,Inc.[289]findingthat"newlydevelopedplantbreedsarepatentableunderthegeneralutilitypatentlawsoftheUnitedStates."[281][286][289][290] AnnVeneman—SecretaryoftheDepartmentofAgriculture,andmemberoftheboardofdirectorsofCalgene[286] UnitedKingdom[edit] Duringthelate1990s,MonsantolobbiedtoraisepermittedglyphosatelevelsinsoybeansandwassuccessfulinconvincingCodexAlimentariusandboththeUKandUSgovernmentstoliftlevels200timesto20milligramsperkilogramofsoya.[291]: 265 WhenaskedhownegotiationswithMonsantowereconducted,LordDonoughue,thentheLabourPartyAgricultureministerintheHouseofLords,statedthatallinformationrelatingtothematterwouldbe"keptsecret".[291]: 265 Duringthe24monthspriortothe1997BritishelectionMonsantorepresentativeshad22meetingsatthedepartmentsofAgricultureandtheEnvironment.[291]: 266 StanleyGreenberg,anelectionadvisortoTonyBlair,laterworkedasaMonsantoconsultant.[291]: 266 FormerLabourspokespersonDavidHill,becameMonsanto'smediaadviseratthelobbyingfirmBellPottinger.[291]: 266 TheLabourgovernmentwaschallengedinParliamentabout"trips,facilities,giftsandotherofferingsoffinancialvalueprovidedbyMonsantotocivilservants",butonlyacknowledgedthatDepartmentofTradeandIndustryhadtwoworkingluncheswithMonsanto.[291]: 267 PeterLuff,thenaConservativePartyMPandChairmanoftheAgricultureSelectCommittee,receivedupto£10,000ayearfromBellPottingeronbehalfofMonsanto.[291]: 266 [292][293] EuropeanUnion[edit] InJanuary2011,WikiLeaksdocumentssuggestedthatUSdiplomatsinEuroperespondedtoarequestforhelpfromtheSpanishgovernment.Onereportstated,"Inaddition,thecablesshowUSdiplomatsworkingdirectlyforGMcompaniessuchasMonsanto.'Inresponsetorecenturgentrequestsby[Spanishruralaffairsministry]statesecretaryJosepPuxeuandMonsanto,postrequestsrenewedUSgovernmentsupportofSpain'sscience-basedagriculturalbiotechnologypositionthroughhigh-levelUSgovernmentintervention.'"[258][294]Theleakeddocumentsshowedthatin2009,whentheSpanishgovernment'spolicyapprovingMON810wasunderpressurefromEUinterests,Monsanto'sDirectorforBiotechnologyforSpainandPortugalrequestedthattheUSgovernmentsupportSpainonthematter.[258][295][296]TheleaksindicatedthatSpainandtheUShadworkedcloselytogetherto"persuadetheEUnottostrengthenbiotechnologylaws".[258][294]SpainwasviewedasakeyGMOsupporterandaleadingindicatorofsupportacrossthecontinent.[297][298]TheleaksalsorevealedthatinresponsetoanattemptbyFrancetobanMON810inlate2007,then-USambassadortoFrance,CraigRobertsStapleton,askedWashingtonto"calibrateatargetedretaliationlistthat[wouldcause]somepainacrosstheEU",targetingcountriesthatdidnotsupporttheuseofGMcrops.[299]ThisactivitytranspiredaftertheUS,Australia,Argentina,Brazil,Canada,India,MexicoandNewZealandhadbroughtanactionagainstEuropeviatheWorldTradeOrganizationwithrespecttotheEU'sbanningofGMOs;in2006,theWTOhadruledagainsttheEU.[298][300][301] MonsantowasamemberofEuropaBio,theleadingbiotechnologytradegroupinEurope.OneofEuropaBio'sinitiativesis"TransformingEurope'spositiononGMfood".Itfound"anurgentneedtoreshapethetermsofthedebateaboutGMinEurope".[302]EuropaBioproposedtherecruitmentofhigh-profile"ambassadors"tolobbyEUofficials.[302][303][304] InSeptember2017MonsantolobbyistswerebannedfromtheEuropeanparliamentaftertheMonsantorefusedtoattendaparliamentaryhearingintoallegationsofregulatoryinterference.[305] Haiti[edit] Afterthe2010Haitiearthquake,Monsantodonated$255,000fordisasterrelief[306]and60,000seedsacks(475tons)ofhybrid(non-GM)cornandvegetableseedsworth$4million.[307]However,aCatholicReliefServices(CRS)rapidassessmentofseedsupplyanddemandforthefivemostcommonfoodsecuritycropsfoundthattheHaitianshadenoughseedandrecommendedthatimportedseedsbeintroducedonlyonasmallscale.[308]EmmanuelProphete,headofHaiti'sMinistryofAgriculture'sServiceNationalSemencier(SNS),statedthatSNSwasnotopposedtothehybridmaizeseedsbecausetheyatleastdoubleyields.LouiseSperling,PrincipalResearcherattheInternationalCenterforTropicalAgriculture(CIAT)toldHGWthatshewasnotopposedtohybrids,butnotedthatmosthybridsrequiredextrawaterandbettersoilsandthatmostofHaitiwasnotappropriateforhybrids. ActivistsobjectedthatsomeoftheseedswerecoatedwiththefungicidesMaximorthiram.IntheUnitedStates,pesticidescontainingthiramarebannedinhomegardenproductsbecausemosthomegardenersdonothaveadequateprotection.[309]Activistswrotethatthecoatedseedswerehandledinadangerousmannerbytherecipients.[310] Thedonatedseedsweresoldatareducedpriceinlocalmarkets.[307]However,farmersfearedthattheywerebeinggivenseedsthatwould"threatenlocalvarieties"[306]andanestimated8,000–12,000farmersattendedaprotestofthedonationonJune4,2010,organizedbyaHaitianfarmers'association,thePeasantMovementofPapay,whereasmallpileofseedswassymbolicallyburned.[311] Publicrelations[edit] Monsantohasengagedinvariouspublicrelationscampaignstoimproveitsimageandpublicperceptionofsomeofitsproducts.[312][313]TheseincludedevelopingarelationshipwithscientistRichardDollwithrespecttoAgentOrange.[314][315][316]OthercampaignsincludethejointfundingwithotherbiotechcompaniesforthewebsiteGMOAnswers.[317] Sponsorships[edit] Disneylandattractions,namely: HallofChemistry(1955to1966)[318] MonsantoHouseoftheFuture(from1957to1967)[319][320] FashionsandFabricsthroughtheYears(from1965to1966)[318] AdventureThruInnerSpace(from1967to1986)[321] Monsantohasdonated$10milliontotheMissouriBotanicalGardeninSt.Louissincethe1970s,whichnamedits1998plantsciencefacilitythe'MonsantoCenter'.[322] FieldMuseum GregorMendelexhibit[323]and"UndergroundAdventures"since2011"abouttheimportanceandfragilityoftheecosystemwithinsoil".[324] "MonsantoEnvironmentalEducationInitiative",ledbyGregoryM.Mueller ChairoftheDepartmentofBotanyandAssociateCuratorofMycology[325] StaffoftheFieldMuseum,suchasCuratorMarkW.Westneat,attendedMonsantomeetings[326] MonsantoInsectariumattheSt.LouisZoo,inSt.Louis,Missouri Universityrelationships[edit] MonsantowasamajorfunderofscienceresearchatWashingtonUniversityinSt.Louisformanyyears.[327]ThisresearchwashighlightedbytheWashingtonUniversity/MonsantoBiomedicalResearchAgreement,whichbroughtmorethan$100millionofresearchfundingtotheuniversity.[328]WashingtonUniversitybuilttheMonsantoLaboratoryoftheLifeSciencesin1965.[329]In2015,MonsantogaveWashingtonUniversity'sInstituteforSchoolPartnershipa$1.94milliongranttohelpbetterteachstudentsinSTEMfields.[330][331] Awards[edit] In2009MonsantowaschosenasForbesmagazine'scompanyoftheyear.[283][332]In2010SwissresearchfirmCovalenceratedMonsantoleastethical[333]of581multinationalcorporationsbasedontheirEthicalQuotereputationtrackingindexwhich"aggregatesthousandsofpositiveandnegativenewsitemspublishedbythemedia,companies,andstakeholders".[334]withoutattempttovalidatesources.[335][336][337]ThejournalSciencerankedMonsantoinitsTop20Employerslistbetween2011and2014.In2012,itdescribedthecompanyas"innovativeleaderintheindustry","makeschangesneeded"and"doesimportantqualityresearch".[338][339]MonsantoexecutiveRobertFraleywontheWorldFoodPrizefor"breakthroughachievementsinfounding,developing,andapplyingmodernagriculturalbiotechnology".[340][341] Documentaries[edit] BitterSeeds Food,Inc. TheFutureofFood TheWorldAccordingtoMonsanto[342] Seealso[edit] Companiesportal Agricultureandagronomyportal BiologicalpatentsintheUnitedStates DuPontPioneer Geneticallymodifiedfoodcontroversies IndustrialBio-TestLaboratories Monsantolegalcases Temporalanalysisofproducts References[edit] ^"USSEC:Form10-KMonsantoCompany".UnitedStatesSecuritiesandExchangeCommission.RetrievedJanuary11,2018. ^"Fortune500Companies2018".fortune.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary15,2019.RetrievedMarch18,2019. ^ab"Theracetowardsthefirstgeneticallymodifiedplant".PlantBiotechNews.June19,2013.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch17,2017.RetrievedApril30,2014. ^DorothyLeonard-Barton,GaryP.Pisano.January29,1990.HarvardBusinessReview:CaseStudies.Monsanto'sMarchintoBiotechnology ^"CompetitionIssuesintheSeedIndustryandtheRoleofIntellectualProperty".Choicesmagazine.org.November21,2009.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch2,2013. ^Schneider,Keith(June10,1990)BettingtheFarmonBiotech.TheNewYorkTimes. ^Burrone,Esteban(2006)PatentsattheCore:theBiotechBusinessArchivedOctober24,2016,attheWaybackMachine.WIPO ^EconomicResearchService/USDATheSeedIndustryinU.S.Agriculture:AnExplorationofDataandInformationonCropSeedMarkets,Regulation,IndustryStructure,andResearchandDevelopmentArchivedNovember9,2012,attheWaybackMachine ^Parsai,Gargi(February5,2012)."OppositiontoMonsantopatentonIndianmelons".TheHindu.Chennai,India. ^Vidal,John(November15,2000)."Biopirateswhoseekthegreatestprizes".TheGuardian.London. ^Paull,John(2018)GeneticallyModifiedOrganisms(GMOs)asInvasiveSpecies,JournalofEnvironmentProtectionandSustainableDevelopment.4(3):31–37. ^Bomey,Nathan."Bigdeal:BayergettingMonsantofor$66B".USATODAY. ^"BayerClosesMonsantoDealtoCap$63BillionTransformation".Bloomberg.com.June7,2018.RetrievedNovember23,2018. ^"Withdealtoclosethisweek,BayertoretireMonsantoname".Reuters.June4,2018. ^Bomey,Nathan."Monsantosheddingname:Bayeracquisitionleadstochangeforenvironmentallightningrod".USATODAY. ^abcdeChappell,Bill(June24,2020)."BayerToPayMoreThan$10BillionToResolveCancerLawsuitsOverWeedkillerRoundup".NPR.RetrievedJuly12,2020. ^Barboza,David."MonsantoandPharmaciatoJoin,CreatingaPharmaceuticalGiant".RetrievedJune15,2018. ^abcdefGlick,J.Leslie(September1,2015)."BiotechFirmsNeedInnovationStrategies".GeneticEngineering&BiotechnologyNews.p. 11.RetrievedSeptember29,2015. ^[1]briefbiofromJuniorAchievementArchivedFebruary6,2009,attheWaybackMachine ^Ehrlich1997,p. 3 ^ErikSimani,WorldResourcesInstitute.2001.TheMonsantoCompany:QuestforSustainability ^"Ourhistory–Earlyyears".Monsantoofficialwebsite.RetrievedSeptember27,2013. ^MarcS.ReischforChemical&EngineeringNews.January12,1998FromCoalTartoCraftingaWealthofDiversity ^RobertAncuceanu.Saccharin–urbanmythsandscientificdataArchivedMay15,2014,attheWaybackMachinePracticaFarmaceutică20114(2):69–72 ^Warner,DeborahJean(2011).SweetStuff:AnAmericanHistoryofSweetenersfromSugartoSucralose.SmithsonianInstitutionScholarlyPress.pp. 182–190.ISBN 978-1935623052. ^Spain,William(October3,2006)."Yes,inMyBackyard:TinySauget,Illinois,LikesBusinessMisfits".TheWallStreetJournal.ISSN 0099-9660.RetrievedDecember22,2017. ^"PoisonedByPCBs:'ALackofControl'".ChemicalIndustryArchives.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonDecember10,2015.RetrievedNovember30,2015. ^Head,ThomasR.,III(Spring2005)."PCBs—TheRiseandFallofanIndustrialMiracle"(PDF).NaturalResources&Environment:18.RetrievedNovember30,2015. ^Montague,Peter."HowWeGotHere–Part1:TheHistoryofChlorinatedDiphenyl(PCB's)".HudsonWatch.net. ^RalphLandau,"CharlesAllenThomas,"MemorialTributes,vol.2,NationalAcademyofEngineering ^DavidBird,"CharlesThomas,Ex-ChairmanofMonsanto"(obituary),TheNewYorkTimes,March31,1982. ^abcDaytonDailyNews.September18,1983"BuildingtheBombinOakwood". ^HarveyV.Moyer,ed.,Polonium.TID-5221,AtomicEnergyCommissionU.S.A.,July1956 ^"Unilever(LeverBrothersCo.)|AdAgeEncyclopediaofAdvertising–AdvertisingAge".Adage.com.September15,2003. ^"FireontheGrandcamp".TexasCity,TX:MooreMemorialPublicLibrary.n.d.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune24,2018.RetrievedOctober21,2015. ^Wallace,CynthiaDay(1982).Legalcontrolofthemultinationalenterprise :nationalregulatorytechniquesandtheprospectsforinternationalcontrols.TheHague:Nijhoff.p. 188.ISBN 9789024726684. ^PolychlorinatedBiphenyls(PCBs).EPA.gov(June28,2006). ^abc"PCBs:Production,Import/Export,Use,andDisposal",AgencyforToxicSubstancesandDiseaseRegistry,at467. ^WilliamS.Knowles.ASYMMETRICHYDROGENATIONS.NobelLecture,December8,2001 ^Yun,O.(November22,2005)."ProfileofWilliamS.Knowles".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.102(47):16913–16915.Bibcode:2005PNAS..10216913Y.doi:10.1073/pnas.0507546102.PMC 1287994.PMID 16286647. ^"June–1964–AstroTurf".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly14,2015.RetrievedJune15,2015. ^ab"AgentOrange"entryinEncyclopediaofUnitedStatesNationalSecurity,editedbyRichardJ.Samuel.SAGEPublications,2005.ISBN 9781452265353 ^E.FredSchubert(2003)."1".Light-EmittingDiodes.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-8194-3956-7. ^PatriciaK.Donahoe.JudahFolkman:1933–2008.ABiographicalMemoirNationalAcademyofSciences,2014 ^HarvardMedicalSchoolBioatHarvardMedicalSchool ^OrangeBook:ApprovedDrugProductswithTherapeuticEquivalenceEvaluations.accessdata.fda.gov ^"Substitutedpyrazolylbenzenesulfonamides". ^"DrugApprovalPackage:Celebrex(Celecoxib)NDA#20-998".Accessdata.fda.gov. ^Frank,Robert&Hensley,Scott(July16,2002)."PfizertoBuyPharmaciaFor$60BillioninStock".TheWallStreetJournal. ^"Generalinformation–Posilac".Monsanto.2007.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary1,2008. ^"WRGraceSellsAgracetustoMonsantofor$150M"(PDF)(Pressrelease).W.R.Grace.April8,1996.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onNovember5,2011.RetrievedAugust11,2012–viaBiotechProfiles. ^ab"JusticeDepartmentApprovesMonsanto'sAcquisitionofDekalbGeneticsCorporation"(Pressrelease).UnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice.November30,1998.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonFebruary18,2004. ^"Stocks". ^"MonsantobuysCalgene-Apr.1,1997".money.cnn.com. ^"Monsantocloses$1.4billionbuyofSeminis".St.LouisBusinessJournal.March23,2005.RetrievedJanuary6,2018. ^Deogun,Nikhil;Langreth,Robert;Burton,ThomasM.(December20,1999)."Pharmacia&Upjohn,MonsantoBoardsApprove$27BillionMergerofEquals".TheWallStreetJournal.RetrievedJanuary6,2018. ^Barboza,David(December20,1999)."MonsantoandPharmaciatoJoin,CreatingaPharmaceuticalGiant".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedJanuary6,2018. ^"MonsantoRaises$700MillioninIPO".LosAngelesTimes.BloombergNews.October18,2000. ^"Geneticallymodifiedcompany".TheEconomist.August15,2002.RetrievedSeptember26,2018. ^Sorkin,AndrewRoss(July15,2002)."PfizerSaidtoBuyLargeDrugRivalin$60BillionDeal".TheNewYorkTimes.ISSN 0362-4331.RetrievedDecember22,2017. ^Staff,CNN/Money.April16,2003It'sofficial:PfizerbuysPharmacia ^"MonsantotoAcquireEmergentGenetics,StonevilleandNexGenCottonBrands".SeedToday.February17,2005.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober15,2013. ^abIanBerryJournal(June26,2012)."MonsantoDigsIntoSeeds".TheWallStreet. ^"Lordoftheseeds".TheEconomist.January27,2005.RetrievedSeptember26,2018. ^"MonsantoCompanyCompletesAcquisitionofDeltaandPineLandCompany,SeeksApprovalofRelatedDivestitures".June1,2007. ^"MonsantoreachesagreementwithDepartmentofJusticetoacqui".Hpj.com.June7,2007. ^Twine,Richard(2010).AnimalsAsBiotechnology:Ethics,SustainabilityandCriticalAnimalStudies.Earthscan.pp. 108–.ISBN 978-1-84977-635-6. ^"BASF-Gruppe:InterviewDr.JürgenHambrechtzurZusammenarbeitmitMonsanto".Corporate.basf.com.March21,2007.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonNovember24,2012.RetrievedJune2,2008. ^"DeRuiterSeedsAcquisition".Reuters.March31,2008. ^"EliLillyandCompanytoAcquireMonsanto'sPOSILACBrandDairyProductandRelatedBusiness".August20,2008.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune3,2010. ^Berry,Ian(May23,2012)MonsantotoBuyPlantingTechnologyCompanyTheWallStreetJournal,RetrievedJuly16,2014 ^Gillam,Carey(October2,2013)."Monsantopostsdeeperfourth-quarterloss,unveilsacquisition".Reuters.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonSeptember24,2015.RetrievedJuly1,2017. ^Vance,Ashlee(October2,2013)Monsanto'sBillion-DollarBetBringsBigDatatotheFarmBloombergBusinessWeek,Technology,RetrievedJuly16,2014 ^AssociatedPress.May25,2013,ProtestersRallyAgainstU.S.SeedGiantAndGMOProducts.TheHuffingtonPost.RetrievedMay25,2013. ^Harmon,Amy(July27,2013)."ARacetoSavetheOrangebyAlteringItsDNA".TheNewYorkTimes.ISSN 0362-4331.RetrievedDecember22,2017. ^Gara,Antoine."MonsantoDrops$46.5BBidForSyngenta,PavingWayForStockBuybackAmidMarketRout".Forbes.RetrievedMay23,2016. ^Jones,David(December10,2015)."Dow-DuPontmergercouldcreateglobalfarmsupplygiant".FarmersWeekly.RetrievedSeptember7,2016. ^"DepartmentoftheArmyJustificationandApprovalforOtherThanFullandOpenCompetition".www.fbo.gov.January29,2013.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonDecember20,2016. ^"DevgentoAcquireRice,Sunflower,SorghumandPearlMilletBusinessesinIndiaandOtherAsianCountriesFromMonsanto".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"NewshamGeneticsAcquiringMonsantoChoiceGenetics".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMay21,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"MonsantoCompanyAcquiresAgroesteSementes,aBrazilianCornSeedCompany".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"EliLillyandCompanytoAcquireMonsanto'sPOSILACBrandDairyProductandRelatedBusiness".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly1,2017. ^"MonsantoCompanytoInvestinTechnologiesforSugarcaneWithAcquisitionsofCanaVialisandAlellyx".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"SyngentatoAcquireMonsanto'sGlobalSunflowerAssets".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"MonsantoAcquiresAgriculturalTechnologyLeaderDivergence,Inc".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober27,2015.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"MonsantoAcquiresTargeted-PestControlTechnologyStart-Up".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"TheClimateCorporationAcquires640Labs,TeamtoBolsterIndustry-LeadingDataScienceCapabilities".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"MonsantoAcquiresSelectAssetsofAgradis,Inc.toSupportWorkinAgriculturalBiologicals".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober16,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"MonsantoAcquiresPlantTraitDeveloperRosettaGreen".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"MonsantoFormsAmericanSeeds,Inc.,anInvestmentVehicleforRegionalSeedCompanies".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^abcde"NewAdditionstoAmericanSeeds,Inc.AccelerateGrowthinMonsanto'sRegionalSeedCompanyApproach".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary21,2017.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^"MonsantoAddsNC+HybridstoAmericanSeeds,Inc.,BolsteringRegionalSeedCompanyApproachtoServeFarmers".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^ab"Monsanto'sAmericanSeeds,Inc.AnnouncesTwoStrategicAcquisitionstoSupportLocally-OrientedBusinessModel".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^abcd"Monsanto'sAmericanSeeds,Inc.AnnouncesFiveAcquisitionstoSupportLocally-OrientedBusinessModel".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonSeptember4,2015.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^ab"MonsantoFormsHoldingCompanytoInvestinInternationalFruitandVegetableSeedCompanies".monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJuly20,2015. ^Alessi,Christopher(May23,2016)."BayerMakes$62BillionBidforMonsanto".TheWallStreetJournal.ISSN 0099-9660.RetrievedMay23,2016. ^"Bayerconfirms$66bnMonsantotakeover".BBCNews.September14,2016.RetrievedJune5,2018. ^Shevlin,Anthony;Drozdiak,Natalia(October13,2017)."BayertoSellAssetstoBASFfor$7BillionAmidScrutinyofMonsantoMegadeal".TheWallStreetJournal.ISSN 0099-9660.RetrievedJune5,2018. ^"CompetitionBureauasksBayertodivestsomeCanadianassetstowinMonsantodealapproval".TheGlobeandMail.RetrievedJune5,2018. ^White,Aoife(March21,2018)."BayerClearsEUHurdleforMonsantoDealWithBASFSale".BloombergNews.NewYorkCity:BloombergL.P.RetrievedMarch21,2018. ^Dye,Jessica;Shubber,Kadhim(May29,2018)."USsettoapproveBayer-Monsantodealwithdivestures".FinancialTimes.RetrievedJune5,2018.(subscriptionrequired) ^"BayerWinsU.S.ApprovalforMonsantoAfterTwo-YearQuest".Bloomberg.com.May29,2018.RetrievedJune5,2018. ^"BayertoditchMonsantonameafterclosing€54bndeal".TheIrishTimes.RetrievedJune5,2018. ^Daniels,Jeff(June7,2018)."Germany'sBayercloses$63billionMonsantotakeover,planstodropUScompany'sname".CNBC.RetrievedJune19,2018. ^"Bayer,MonsantopledgeU.S.R&Dspending,jobsaftermerger".January17,2017–viawww.reuters.com. ^"MonsantoSharesuponBayer-TrumpPromiseforBillionsinU.S.Investment,Jobs".January13,2017. ^"MissouriPartnership|EconomicDevelopment|Bayer&MonsantoCompleteMerger,EstablishGlobalSeeds&TraitsandNorthAmericanHeadquartersInMissouri".MissouriPartnership.June11,2018. ^FarmChemicalsInternationalGlyphosateentryinCropProtectionDatabase ^MitchemW."MirrororMirrorontheWallShowMetheBestGlyphosateFormulationofAll"(PDF).NorthCarolinaStateUniversityExtension.RetrievedJuly23,2013. ^HartzlerB."ISUWeedScienceOnline–Glyphosate–AReview".IowaStateUniversityExtension.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMay18,2018.RetrievedAugust5,2015. ^TuM,HurdC,RobisonR,RandallJM(November1,2001)."Glyphosate"(PDF).WeedControlMethodsHandbook.TheNatureConservancy. ^"ThedebateoverwhetherMonsantoisacorporatesinnerorsaint".TheEconomist.November19,2009.RetrievedNovember20,2009. ^CavallaroM(June26,2009)."TheSeedsOfAMonsantoShortPlay".Forbes.RetrievedJuly11,2009. ^abcLatzke,JenniferM.(August10,2010)."RoundupReadysoybeantraitpatentnearsexpirationin2014".HighPlainsJournal. ^Person,Daniel(September28,2009)."Salecouldchangewheatindustry:WestBred'sownerMonsantolookstodevelop'geneticallymodified'varieties".Missoulian.RetrievedMay4,2016. ^Patently-OBlog,September26,2011.WhenMonsanto'sPatentsExpire ^AndrewPollack,"AsPatentEnds,aSeed'sUseWillSurvive",TheNewYorkTimes.December17,2009. ^IllinoisSoybeanAssociationGetReady:Post-PatentRoundupReady1EraComingArchivedApril2,2015,attheWaybackMachine ^MonsantoOfficialWebsiteRoundupReadySoybeanPatentExpirationArchivedJanuary22,2013,attheWaybackMachine ^"MonsantoWillLetBio-CropPatentsExpire".BusinessWeek.January21,2010. ^Monsanto.RoundupReadySoybeanPatentExpirationArchivedFebruary8,2015,attheWaybackMachine ^"Monsanto~Licensing".Monsanto.com.November3,2008. ^MonsantoGMOIgnitesBigSeedWar.NPR. ^"UserAgreementandLegalInformation".Syngenta.com. ^"AgronomyLibrary–PioneerHi-BredAgronomyLibrary".Pioneer.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober17,2012.RetrievedAugust30,2012. ^GeneticallyAlteredPotatoOk'dForCrops LawrenceJournal-World,May6,1995. ^CropBiotechUpdate(August27,2010)."Monsanto'sBtRoundupReady2YieldSoybeansApprovedforPlantinginBrazil–CropBiotechUpdate(8/27/2010)|ISAAA.org/KC".Isaaa.org. ^"Agribusiness:MonsantounveilsGenuitybranding".SEFarmNews,March2,2009. ^"TheCLEARFIELDProductionSystemforWheat".Agproducts.basf.us. ^"Monsanto~AgriculturalSeeds".Monsanto.com.November3,2008.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune16,2012.RetrievedAugust17,2012. ^OECDBioTrackDatabase.MON87460 ^FederalRegister,Vol.76,No.248,December27,2011. ^MichaelEisenstein"Plantbreeding:Discoveryinadryspell"Nature501,S7–S9(September26,2013)PublishedonlineSeptember25,2013. ^RoundupReadyXtendCropSystemArchivedApril2,2013,attheWaybackMachineAccessedMay11,2013 ^"RoundupReady2XtendFinallyApprovedbyChina".AgWeb–TheHomePageofAgriculture.RetrievedMay6,2016. ^Bunge,Jacob(May2,2016)."GrainTradersRejectingNewSoybeansDevelopedbyMonsanto".TheWallStreetJournal.ISSN 0099-9660.RetrievedMay6,2016. ^"Monsanto~CottonInIndia".Monsanto.com.November3,2008. ^"BtcottonineffectiveagainstpestinpartsofGujarat,admitsMonsanto".TheHindu.Chennai,India.March6,2010.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch15,2010. ^USEPA(UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency)."SlowingandCombatingPestResistancetoPesticides".RetrievedOctober28,2021. ^Buhler,Wayne."TakeStepstoAvoidInsecticideResistance–PesticideEnvironmentalStewardship".PesticideEnvironmentalStewardship.NorthCarolinaExtension.RetrievedOctober28,2021. ^"ManagingPesticideResistance".WSUTreeFruit.May15,2018.RetrievedOctober28,2021. ^InsecticideResistanceActionCommittee;RegionalIPMCenters."InsecticideResistance:CausesandAction"(PDF).USDA(UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture). ^BASF."InsecticideModeofAction-TechnicalTrainingManual"(PDF). ^Délye,Christophe(March29,2016)."Larésistanceauxproduitsphytopharmaceutiques".FrenchAgricultureMinistry.Ilfautaussi...varierlesmodesd’actions...etéviterlesfauxmélangesdeproduitsayantlemêmemoded'actionquinefontqu’augmenterlerisque[Wemustalso...varytheMOAs...andavoidfakemixeswiththesameMOAwhichonlyincreasetherisk.] ^"NationalActionPlanonSustainableUseofPlantProtectionProducts".GermanAgricultureMinistry.Thevaritiesbeinggrowntodayareusuallyresistanttoortolerantofindividualbioticorabioticinfluences.Resistancesbasedsolelyononeplantcharacteristic(oftencontrolledthroughonegene)canbebrokenbyadaptingtheharmfulorganisms.Increasingly,theaiminresistanceresearchistocreatemodernbreedingmeasureswhichbreedpolygenicresistantplantswithresistancemechanismsthatharmfulorganismsfinditdifficulttocircumvent. ^"Monsanto'admission'hasbusinessmotives?".TheHindu.Chennai,India.March12,2010.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch14,2010. ^Ghosh,Pallab(June17,2003),"India'sGMseedPiracy",BBCNews. ^"JhabuaonitswaytobecomingVidarbha-II?".TheHindu.Chennai,India.August25,2009.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonAugust28,2009. ^"Monsanto~MonsantoVegetableSeeds".Monsanto.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune10,2012. ^Wired(2015)."Monsantoisgoingorganicinaquestfortheperfectveggie".Wired. ^Erickson,MitchellD.;Kaley,II,RobertG.(2011)."Applicationsofpolychlorinatedbiphenyls"(PDF).EnvironmentalScienceandPollutionResearchInternational.Springer-Verlag.18(2):135–51.doi:10.1007/s11356-010-0392-1.PMID 20848233.S2CID 25260209.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onApril2,2015.RetrievedMarch3,2015. ^Crompton,TR(June1,2002).DeterminationofOrganicCompoundsinNaturalandTreatedWaters.CRCPress.p. 396.ISBN 978-0-203-01635-0. ^"HealthEffectsofPCBs",U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency ^KarlynBlackKaley;JimCarlisle;DavidSiegel;JulioSalinas(October2006).HealthConcernsandEnvironmentalIssueswithPVC-ContainingBuildingMaterialsinGreenBuildings(PDF).IntegratedWasteManagementBoard,CaliforniaEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,USA.p. 11.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJuly15,2007.RetrievedOctober21,2012. ^"PCB'sinNYCSchools–Region2–USEPA".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonSeptember6,2015.RetrievedSeptember19,2016. ^"InternationalAgreementsandTreatiesonPesticides",Pesticides:InternationalActivities,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune27,2015. ^Hay,Alastair(September1,1982).TheChemicalScythe:Lessonsof2,4,5-TandDioxin.SpringerScience&BusinessMedia.pp. 151–.ISBN 978-0-306-40973-8. ^Dohoo,I.R.;Leslie,K.;Descôteaux,L.;Fredeen,A.;Dowling,P.;Preston,A.;Shewfelt,W.(2003)."Ameta-analysisreviewoftheeffectsofrecombinantbovinesomatotropin.1.Methodologyandeffectsonproduction".CanadianJournalofVeterinaryResearch.67(4):241–251.PMC 280708.PMID 14620860. ^Dohoo,I.R.;Descôteaux,L.;Leslie,K.;Fredeen,A.;Shewfelt,W.;Preston,A.;Dowling,P.(2003)."Ameta-analysisreviewoftheeffectsofrecombinantbovinesomatotropin.2.Effectsonanimalhealth,reproductiveperformance,andculling".CanadianJournalofVeterinaryResearch.67(4):252–264.PMC 280709.PMID 14620861. ^"EliLillytoBuyMonsanto'sDairyCowHormonefor$300million–DealBookBlog".TheNewYorkTimes.August20,2008. ^Dobson,WilliamD.(June1996)TheBSTCase.UniversityofWisconsin-MadisonAgriculturalandAppliedEconomicsStaffPaperSeriesNo.397 ^abFightingonaBattlefieldtheSizeofaMilkLabel,TheNewYorkTimes,March9,2008 ^"AFACT:AmericanFarmersfortheAdvancementandConservationofTechnology".Itisafact.org. ^"RAFIonnewTerminatorpatent".Ngin.tripod.com. ^"Contextof'July20,1999:USDAandDelta&PineLandSecureNewPatentforImprovementsinTerminatorGeneticSeedSterilizationTechnology'".Historycommons.org.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonFebruary5,2021.RetrievedJuly24,2012. ^abWarwick,Hugh(October2000).Wijeratna,Alex;Meienberg,François;Meienberg(eds.)."Syngenta–Switchingofffarmers'rights?"(PDF).FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onMay12,2011.{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^ab"Monsanto~IsMonsantoGoingtoDeveloporSell"Terminator"Seeds?".Monsanto.com.November3,2008.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune5,2012.RetrievedJuly24,2012. ^"Introduction/TheIssues/".BanTerminator.June1,2007.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly9,2012.RetrievedAugust3,2012. ^"Farmerswelcomehaltof'terminator'".BBCNews.October5,1999. ^"CAS38-424Oct2006.vp"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onMay31,2013. ^Vidal,John(October5,1999)."Worldbracedforterminator2".TheGuardian.London. ^"MonsantoCompanyHistory"monsanto.com ^Mangan,Mary(February12,2021)."'Terminatorseeds'—theanti-GMObogeymanthatneverexisted".GeneticLiteracyProject.RetrievedJuly16,2021. ^"UnapprovedMonsantoGMOWheatFoundinOregon".CNBC.Reuters.May29,2013.RetrievedSeptember20,2018. ^Regalado,Antonio."Thesearenotyourfather'sGMOs".MITTechnologyReview.RetrievedSeptember20,2018. ^"PioneerHiBredInternationalv.Does1–5".Scribd.com.May14,2012. ^"J.E.M.Supplyv.PioneerHi-BredInternational|TheOyezProjectatIITChicago-KentCollegeofLaw".Oyez.org. ^"SyngentasuestostopillegalsalesofCOKERseedvarieties".Hpj.com. ^abDewey,Caitlin(June4,2018)."Why'Monsanto'isnomore".WashingtonPost.RetrievedSeptember28,2018. ^"BayerCEOsaysMonsanto'sreputationisa'majorchallenge'".Reuters.April28,2018.RetrievedSeptember28,2018. ^abTheSoyRepublicofArgentina.Towardfreedom.com(September2,2009). ^abGMsoya'miracle'turnssourinArgentina.TheGuardian(April16,2004). ^CarlosReboratti(2010)"Aseaofsoybean:ConsequencesofthenewagricultureinArgentina(Unmardesoja:LanuevaagriculturaenArgentinaysusconsecuencias)".NorteGrandeGeographyJournalRevistadegeografíaNorteGrande45:63–76. ^SeedsofconflicttakerootindebateoverMichiganfarmingbill.Cropchoice.com,January31,2006. ^"Monsantopodrácontinuarconobracivilperonoconoperativa"(inSpanish).LaVoz.April23,2013. ^Marín,Emiliom(December2,2013)."Monsantocontaminaelmedioambienteytambiénlademocracia".Argenpress.info. ^"RatificanqueMonsantopodrácontinuarconlaobracivil"(inSpanish).LaVoz.October10,2013. ^Gonzalez,PabloRosendo(June14,2016)."Monsanto-ArgentinaSeedPactSaidtoBecomeEffectiveNextWeek".Bloomberg.com.RetrievedDecember15,2016. ^"GMcropsinBrazil:Anamberlightforagri-business".TheEconomist(October2,2003). ^Americas|BrazilactiviststargetMonsanto.BBCNews(June3,2003). ^"郎咸平：孟山都的转基因帝国-大豆、玉米与棉花".Wyzxsx.com.January28,2010.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch28,2010. ^abFRONTLINE/WORLD.RoughCut.SeedsofSuicide.PBS(July26,2005). ^"IndiaPMpledgeoversuicidefarmers".BBCNews.July1,2004. ^TheHinduBusinessLine.May26,2005NuziveedulaunchesBtcottonstrains ^"AngryAndhrauprootsMonsanto".financialexpress.com.Hyderabad.June23,2005. ^A.P.GovernmentfilescontemptpetitionbeforeMRTPCagainstMonsanto,TheHindu,June27,2006. ^Gruère,Guillaume;Sengupta,Debdatta(2011)."BtCottonandFarmerSuicidesinIndia:AnEvidence-basedAssessment".TheJournalofDevelopmentStudies.47(2):316–37.doi:10.1080/00220388.2010.492863.PMID 21506303.S2CID 20145281. ^abc"DoubtssurroundlinkbetweenBtcottonfailureandfarmersuicide :Article :NatureBiotechnology".January2009.RetrievedMay6,2013. ^abcGuillaumeP.Gruère,PurviMehta-BhattandDebdattaSengupta(2008)."BtCottonandFarmerSuicidesinIndia:ReviewingtheEvidence"(PDF).InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute. ^Choudhary,B.&Gaur,K.2010.BtCottoninIndia:ACountryProfile.ISAAASeriesofBiotechCropProfiles.ISAAA:Ithaca,NY. ^VandanaShivaonFarmerSuicides,theU.S.-IndiaNuclearDeal,Wal-MartinIndiaandMore.DemocracyNow!(December13,2006). ^Peled,M.X.(ProducerandDirector)(September1,2011).BitterSeeds(motionpicture).UnitedStates:TeddyBearFilms. ^Scott,DanielJames(February9,2012)."DirectorMichaX.PeledonBitterSeeds".Filmmaker.RetrievedMay1,2013. ^Shiva,Vandana(April28,2009)."VandanaShiva:FromSeedsofSuicidetoSeedsofHope:WhyAreIndianFarmersCommittingSuicideandHowCanWeStopThisTragedy?".HuffingtonPost.RetrievedMay2,2013. ^abTimes,Hindustan."MinistryblamesBtcottonforfarmersuicides–HindustanTimes".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly22,2013.RetrievedMay2,2013. ^abStaff,InfoChangeAugust2005.644farmersuicidesinMaharashtrasince2001,saysTISSreportArchivedMarch7,2016,attheWaybackMachine ^DandekarA.,etal.,TataInstitute."CausesofFarmerSuicidesinMaharashtra:AnEnquiry.FinalReportSubmittedtotheMumbaiHighCourtMarch15,2005".ArchivedAugust9,2013,attheWaybackMachine ^Nagraj,K.(2008)."FarmerssuicideinIndia:magnitudes,trendsandspatialpatterns"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onMay12,2011. ^Mishra,Srijit(2007)."Risks,Farmers'SuicidesandAgrarianCrisisinIndia:IsThereAWayOut?"(PDF).IndiraGandhiInstituteofDevelopmentResearch(IGIDR). ^abStaff,WalesOnline.October17,2011Remedialworktostartonquarry ^BurgesSalmonLLP.April12,2012ChangestothecontaminatedlandregimeArchivedSeptember3,2014,attheWaybackMachine ^abBBCJune15,2011BrofiscinQuarrypollutionatGroesfaentobecleaned ^Levitt,Tom(February21,2011)."MonsantoagreestocleanuptoxicchemicalsinSouthWalesquarry".TheGuardian.RetrievedJune5,2013. ^"EAresponsibility".EnvironmentAgencyWales.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch28,2014.RetrievedJune5,2013. ^RhonddaCynonTafCountyBoroughCouncilRCTCBC"Brofiscin"siteArchivedSeptember2,2014,attheWaybackMachineAccessedSeptember1,2014 ^BBC,February12,2007,22:48£100msitecleanupcostdenied ^Spain,William(October3,2006)."TinySauget,Illinois,likesbusinessmisfits".Post-gazette.com. ^Grunwald,Michael(January1,2002)."MonsantoHidDecadesOfPollution".TheWashingtonPost.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonNovember8,2020.RetrievedMay26,2013. ^Sack,Kevin(January27,2002)."PCBPollutionSuitsHaveDayinCourtinAlabama".TheNewYorkTimes. ^TheAssociatedPress(August21,2003)."$700MillionSettlementinAlabamaPCBLawsuit".TheNewYorkTimes. ^Rosenblatt,Joel;Chediak,Mark(December1,2020)."Bayer's$650MillionPCBPollutionSettlementRejectedbyJudge".ClaimsJournal.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonDecember20,2020.RetrievedDecember15,2020. ^EPAsuperfundsearchengineSearchfor"Monsanto"in"Alias/AlternativeSiteName"field,firstin"active"sites,then"archived"sites,October20,2012 ^"MonsantoHeldLiableForPCBDumping".TheWashingtonPost.February22,2002.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonApril2,2015. ^"TheInsideStory:Anniston,ALIn-depth:MonsantoknewaboutPCBtoxicityfordecades"ArchivedJuly18,2005,attheWaybackMachine.Chemicalindustryarchives.org. ^AlanBjerga,"MonsantoModifiedWheatNotApprovedbyUSDAFoundinField",BloombergNews.May29,2013. ^AndrewPollack,"ModifiedWheatIsDiscoveredinOregon",TheNewYorkTimes,May29,2013. ^AndyCoghlan(June3,2013)."MonsantomodifiedwheatmysterydeepensinOregon".NewScientist. ^Staff,FoodSafetyNews.June17,2013.GMOWheatFoundinOregonWasIsolatedIncident,SaysUSDA ^AssociatedPress.August30,2013."SourceofGMOwheatinOregonremainsmystery".ArchivedSeptember14,2013,attheWaybackMachine ^"FoodControversies—Pesticidesandorganicfoods".CancerResearchUK.2016.RetrievedNovember28,2017. ^Tarazona,JoseV.;Court-Marques,Daniele;Tiramani,Manuela;Reich,Hermine;Pfeil,Rudolf;Istace,Frederique;Crivellente,Federica(April3,2017)."Glyphosatetoxicityandcarcinogenicity:areviewofthescientificbasisoftheEuropeanUnionassessmentanditsdifferenceswithIARC".ArchivesofToxicology.91(8):2723–2743.doi:10.1007/s00204-017-1962-5.PMC 5515989.PMID 28374158. ^"TheBfRhasfinaliseditsdraftreportforthere-evaluationofglyphosate–BfR".RetrievedAugust18,2018. ^Cressey,Daniel(2015)."Widelyusedherbicidelinkedtocancer".Nature.doi:10.1038/nature.2015.17181.S2CID 131732731.RetrievedApril1,2019. ^"Bayer'sMonsantofaces8,000lawsuitsonglyphosate".Reuters.August23,2018.RetrievedSeptember11,2018. ^CresseyD(March25,2015)."Widelyusedherbicidelinkedtocancer".Nature.doi:10.1038/nature.2015.17181.S2CID 131732731. ^InternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer(2017).IARCMonographs,Volume112.Glyphosate,in:SomeOrganophosphateInsecticidesandHerbicides(PDF).Lyon:IARC/WHO.pp. 321–412. ^"Bayer'sRoundupHeadacheGrowsasPlaintiffsPileIntoCourt".Bloomberg.October30,2019.RetrievedOctober31,2019. ^Yan,Holly."Patients:RoundupgaveuscancerasEPAofficialhelpedthecompany".PhotographsbyJohnFrancisPetersfor.CNN.RetrievedAugust13,2018. ^Yan,Holly."Jurorsgive$289milliontoamantheysaygotcancerfromMonsanto'sRoundupweedkiller".CNN.RetrievedAugust13,2018. ^Breitler,Alex(March27,2017)."SJ,LoderesidentsamongthosesuingMonsantoclaimingRounduplinkedtocancer".TheStocktonRecord.RetrievedApril25,2017. ^"MonsantoappealsRoundupcancerverdict".Phys.org.RetrievedNovember30,2018. ^ab"RoundupmakerMonsantoappeals$78.5millionverdictoverBayAreaman'scancer".ABC7SanFrancisco.November21,2018.RetrievedNovember30,2018. ^Egelko,Bob(July21,2020)."AwardtoVallejogroundskeeperinMonsantocancercaseslashedagain-verdictupheld".SanFranciscoChronicle.RetrievedMarch3,2021. ^Levin,Sam(March27,2019)."MonsantofoundliableforCaliforniaman'scancerandorderedtopay$80mindamages".TheGuardian.RetrievedMarch28,2019. ^"Bayer's$2BillionRoundupDamagesBoostPressuretoSettle".BloombergNews.RetrievedMay14,2019. ^Telford,Taylor(July26,2019)."Judgecuts$2billionawardforcouplewithcancerto$86.7millioninRounduplawsuit".TheWashingtonPost.RetrievedJuly27,2019. ^CorrineRuff(February15,2020)."Monsanto,BASFWillPay$250MillionInPunitiveDamagesInFirstDicambaTrial".St.LouisPublicRadio.RetrievedFebruary15,2020. ^"JuryfindsinfavorofMissouripeachgrowerinlawsuitagainstBayer,BASF". ^Reeves,J.C.(December15,2020)."DistrictJudgeordersreductionofpunitivedamagesindicambacase".SoutheastMissourian.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonDecember20,2020.RetrievedDecember15,2020. ^Morgenson,Gretchen(September9,2016)."MonsantoWhistle-Blower:$22MillionRicher,butNotSatisfied".TheNewYorkTimes.ISSN 0362-4331.RetrievedDecember22,2017. ^"ORDERINSTITUTINGADMINISTRATIVEANDCEASE-AND-DESISTPROCEEDINGSPURSUANTTOSECTION8AOFTHESECURITIESACTOF1933,SECTIONS4CAND21COFTHESECURITIESEXCHANGEACTOF1934,ANDRULE102(e)OFTHECOMMISSION'SRULESOFPRACTICE,MAKINGFINDINGSANDIMPOSINGREMEDIALSANCTIONSANDACEASE-AND-DESISTORDER"(PDF).SEC.gov.RetrievedOctober4,2016. ^"MonsantoWasItsOwnGhostwriterforSomeSafetyReviews".BloombergBusinessweek.RetrievedOctober26,2017. ^ab"Monsanto'sSwayOverResearchIsSeeninDisclosedEmails".TheNewYorkTimes.August2,2017.RetrievedAugust2,2017. ^Hakim,Danny(August1,2017)."MonsantoEmailsRaiseIssueofInfluencingResearchonRoundupWeedKiller".TheNewYorkTimes.ISSN 0362-4331.RetrievedDecember8,2019. ^Monsantospent$2millionlobbyinggov'tin3Q,AssociatedPressDecember15,2011,©2012BLOOMBERGL.P. ^Monsantolobbyingexpenses,OpenSecrets. ^"LobbyingSpendingDatabase–MonsantoCo,2011".OpenSecrets.September17,2012. ^abcdVidal,John(January3,2011)."WikiLeaks:UStargetsEUoverGMcrops".TheGuardian.London,UK. ^Vaughan,Adam(November7,2012)."Prop37:CalifornianvotersrejectGMfoodlabelling".TheGuardian.London. ^"CaliforniaHeadsforVoteonModifiedFoodLabeling".Businessweek.May2,2012. ^Gillam,Carey(August16,2012)."Prop37:CaliforniaGMOFightPitsBigFoodAgainstActivists".TheHuffingtonPost. ^ab"NotedFoodSafetyExpertMichaelR.TaylorNamedAdvisortoFDACommissioner".Fda.gov.July7,2009. ^abHoffmann,Sandra;Taylor,MichaelR.(September30,2010).TowardSaferFood:PerspectivesonRiskandPrioritySetting.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-136-52451-6. ^ab"WoodrowWilsonCenterbio"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJanuary7,2019.RetrievedMay30,2013. ^abFDANewsReleaseJuly7,2009NotedFoodSafetyExpertMichaelR.TaylorNamedAdvisortoFDACommissioner ^"Modifiedcropsincreaseherbicideuse,WSUresearchersays|LocalNews|TheSeattleTimes". ^"AboutBIO|BIO".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonNovember12,2012.RetrievedNovember7,2012. ^"LobbyingSpendingDatabase-BiotechnologyIndustryOrganization,2010|OpenSecrets". ^"LobbyingSpendingDatabase-BiotechnologyIndustryOrganization,2011|OpenSecrets". ^Staff,NationalInstituteonMoneyinStatePolitics.RetrievedJuly22,2013MonsantopageatFollowTheMoney.orgArchivedFebruary25,2012,attheWaybackMachine ^Staff,Monsanto.RetrievedJuly22,2013Monsanto'sofficial"PoliticalDisclosures"pageArchivedAugust29,2013,attheWaybackMachine ^FederalElectionCommission.FECForm3x:ReportofReceiptsandDisbursements,MonsantoCompanyCitizenshipFundakaMonsantoCitizenshipFund,generated7/8/2013ArchivedMay7,2015,attheWaybackMachine ^"COMMITTEEDETAILSFORCOMMITTEEIDC00042069".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch4,2016.RetrievedJune15,2015. ^"LibertyFFreportontheMonsantoCitizenshipFundPAC".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober14,2013.RetrievedJuly22,2013. ^"MonsantoBets$5MillioninFightOverGene-AlteredFood".Bloomberg. ^Ferrara,Jennifer(September–October1998)."RevolvingDoors:MonsantoandtheRegulators".TheEcologist.28(5):280–286.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonDecember26,2013.RetrievedDecember26,2013. ^Lewis,Hunter(November9,2013)."Monsanto'sFriendsinHighPlaces".MisesDaily.LudwigvonMisesInstitute.RetrievedDecember25,2013. ^Shen,Aviva(April10,2013)."TheRealMonsantoProtectionAct:HowTheGMOGiantCorruptsRegulatorsAndConsolidatesItsPower".ThinkProgress.RetrievedDecember25,2013. ^StephanieArmourforBloombergNews.February29,2012.FoodSafetyOfficial'sPastWorkforMonsantoSpursPetitionforOuster ^OECDAugust23,2010Post-PublicEmployment:GoodPracticesforPreventingConflictofInterestISBN 9789264056701 ^abcd"Monsanto'sCruel,andDangerous,MonopolizationonAmericanFarming".VanityFair.April2,2008. ^Laino,Charlene(June25,2003)."Dr.MichaelFriedman,AfterServingattheNCI,FDA,andPharmacia,ReturnstoAcademiaasCEOofCityofHope".OncologyTimes.25(12):41–42.doi:10.1097/01.COT.0000289833.46951.54. ^abLangreth,RobertandHerper,Matthew,(January19,2010)ThePlanetVersusMonsantoForbesmagazine ^"MonsantoHiresFormerSen.BlancheLincolnAsLobbyist",TheHuffingtonPost. ^"WilliamD.Ruckelshaus".Ruckelshauscenter.wsu.edu. ^abcDoran,Christopher(2012).MakingtheWorldSafeforCapitalism:HowIraqThreatenedtheUSEconomicEmpireandhadtobeDestroyed.PlutoPress.p. 214.ISBN 9780745332222.JSTOR j.ctt183p5cm. ^Layton,Lyndsey(January14,2010)."NewFDAdeputytoleadfood-safetymandate".TheWashingtonPost. ^Palast,Gregory(February21,1999)SouredmilkofMonsanto's'kindness',TheGuardian ^ab"J.E.M.AgSupply,Inc.V.PioneerHi-Bredinternational,Inc".Law.cornell.edu. ^"KeySupremeCourtrulingonplantpatents–McEowen,HarlMarch2002".Extension.iastate.edu.January18,2002.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonDecember2,2008.RetrievedMay19,2008. ^abcdefgMonbiot,George(July11,2013).CaptiveState:TheCorporateTakeoverofBritain.PanMacmillan.ISBN 978-1-4472-5247-4. ^Barnett,Antony(July4,1999)."Monsanto'slobbyfirmpayskeyMP".TheGuardian.London. ^Barnett,Antony(July11,1999)."ResigncalloverMP'slinkwithGMfoodfirm".TheGuardian.London. ^ab"U.S.targetedEUonGMfoods:WikiLeaks".CanadianBroadcastingCorporation.March9,2011. ^"Spain'sbiotechcropunderthreat(Wikileakstelegram09MADRID482)".U.S.DepartmentofState.May19,2009.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly21,2011., ^"Spainakeyallyofpro-GMOAmerica,cablesreveal".EUobserver.December20,2010. ^Estabrook,Barry(January17,2011)."U.S.PressesEuropetoWorshipGeneticallyModifiedFoods". ^ab"EEUU:"EspañanospidequepresionemosaBruselasafavordelostransgénicos"".ElPais.December19,2010. ^Vidal,John(January3,2011)."WikiLeaks:UStargetsEUoverGMcrops".TheGuardian.London,UK. ^Euractive.comEUGMObanwasillegal,WTOrules,euractiv.com(updatedMay23,2007) ^EC–ApprovalandMarketingofBiotechProducts(DisputesDS291,292,293),WorldTradeOrganisation. ^abTransformingEurope'spositiononGMfood–ambassadorsprogrammeexecutivesummaryTheGuardian,October20,2011 ^Biotechgroupbidstorecruithigh-profileGM'ambassadors'JohnVidalandHannaGersmann,TheGuardian,October20,2011 ^DraftletterfromEuropaBiotopotentialGMambassadors(DraftletterfromEuropaBiotopotentialGMambassadorsseekingtheirinvolvementintheoutreachprogramme),TheGuardian,October20,2011 ^Neslen,Arthur(September28,2017)."MonsantobannedfromEuropeanparliament".TheGuardian. ^abHaitianfarmersprotestMonsantoseeddonations,Hinche,Haiti(AFP)June4,2010 ^abKatz,JonathanM.(May14,2010)."MonsantogivesHaiti$4millioninhybridseeds".BusinessWeek. ^"ARapidSeedAssessmentintheSouthernDepartmentofHaiti."CatholicReliefServices,March2010 ^USEPA:Pesticides–REDFactsThiram.(PDF). ^"MonsantoinHaiti".Truth-out.org. ^Skorbach,Kristina(June24–July7,2010)."HaitiGMfoodaidisa'trojanhorse'"(PDF).TheEpochTimes.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJune15,2012.RetrievedAugust28,2012. ^JennyHopkinson,"Monsanto'smakeover",Politico,November29,2013. ^JohnVidal,"Weforgottolisten,saysMonsanto",TheGuardian,October6,1999. ^SarahBoseley,"Renownedcancerscientistwaspaidbychemicalfirmfor20years";TheGuardian,December8,2006. ^"Industry‘paidtopcancerexpert'",BBC,December8,2006. ^Tweedale,Geoffrey(April1,2007)."HeroorVillain?—SirRichardDollandOccupationalCancer".InternationalJournalofOccupationalandEnvironmentalHealth.13(2):233–235.doi:10.1179/oeh.2007.13.2.233.ISSN 1077-3525.PMID 17718181.S2CID 40438560. ^EricLipton,"FoodIndustryEnlistedAcademicsinG.M.O.LobbyingWar,EmailsShow",TheNewYorkTimes,September9,2015. ^abMonsantoHallofChemistry.Yesterland.com. ^Houses:MakeMineSmall,Modular,andMadeofPlasticArchivedAugust29,2012,attheWaybackMachine.Alum.mit.edu(April30,2010) ^"TheFutureWon'tWait".Yesterland.com. ^AdventureThruInnerSpace.Yesterland.com. ^Pressrelease"MissouriBotanicalGardenreceives$3milliongiftfromMonsantoCompanytowarddevelopmentofaWorldFloraOnline."MissouriBotanicalGarden,June5,2012 ^2007AnnualReport[permanentdeadlink]FieldMuseum,page10,2007:"Restrictedgiftsandgrants100,000to$249,999" ^PressReleaseUndergroundAdventureFieldMuseum,2011 ^FIELDMUSEUM1999ANNUALREPORTTOTHEBOARDOFTRUSTEES[permanentdeadlink]OfficeofAcademicAffairs,TheFieldMuseum,March20,2000,page53 ^OfficeofCollectionsandResearch,TheFieldMuseumThefieldmuseum2012annualreporttotheboardoftrusteespage64. ^Culliton,BarbaraJ.(March2,1990)."Monsanto-WashU".Science.247(4946):1027.doi:10.1126/science.247.4946.1027.PMID 17800050. ^"WU/MonsantoBiomedicalResearchAgreement|VerticalFileCollection,BernardBeckerMedicalLibraryArchives".beckerarchives.wustl.edu.RetrievedAugust19,2019. ^"MonsantoLaboratoryoftheLifeSciences".WashingtonUniversityinSt.Louis.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonAugust22,2019.RetrievedAugust19,2019. ^"MonsantoFundAwards$1.9MillionGranttoInstituteforSchoolPartnership".Monsanto.August18,2015.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonAugust20,2019.RetrievedAugust20,2019. ^"Monsanto-WashUStemInitiative".www.bizjournals.com.RetrievedAugust19,2019. ^Weiner,Juli(October7,2010)."HowSeedGiantMonsantoWentfrom2009CompanyoftheYeartoWorstStockof2010".TheHive.RetrievedSeptember20,2018. ^"CovalenceEthicalRankings2009".January26,2010.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch17,2010.RetrievedMarch29,2016. ^"About-Us".CovalenceEthicalQuote.RetrievedMarch29,2016. ^"Methodology".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonApril20,2010.RetrievedMarch29,2016.Covalencedoesnotseesomesourcesasmorereliablethanothers.Anysourceisconsideredequally.Covalencedoesnotvalidateinformationsources,neitherthecontentofinformation. ^"AcrossSectors".January26,2010.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch25,2010.RetrievedMarch29,2016. ^Cesca,Bob(April9,2010)."Monsantoleadsingeneticallymodifiedagriculture,trailsinethics".DailyFinance.RetrievedMarch29,2016.AndwherewasMonsantoonthelist?Deadlast.581outof581. ^"AnnualTopEmployersSurvey:StabilityintheFaceofChange".ScienceCareers.September21,2012.RetrievedJune15,2015. ^Unglesbee,Ben(October14,2014)."Monsantomakestop10onScience'slistofbestemployers".www.bizjournals.com.RetrievedSeptember20,2018. ^"2013–VanMontagu,Chilton,Fraley".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly14,2015.RetrievedJune15,2015. ^Pollack,Andrew(June20,2013)."ExecutiveatMonsantoWinsGlobalFoodHonor".TheNewYorkTimes. ^TheWorldAccordingtoMonsantoonYouTube Bibliography[edit] Ehrlich,Walter(1997).ZionintheValley,1807-1907:VolumeI,TheJewishCommunityofSt.Louis.UniversityofMissouriPress.ISBN 0826210988. Forrestal,DanJ.(1977).Faith,Hope&$5000:TheStoryofMonsanto,Simon&Schuster,ISBN 0-671-22784-X. Pechlaner,Gabriela,CorporateCrops:Biotechnology,Agriculture,andtheStruggleforControl,UniversityofTexasPress,2012,ISBN 0292739451 Robin,Marie-Monique,TheWorldAccordingtoMonsanto:Pollution,Corruption,andtheControloftheWorld'sFoodSupply,NewPress,2009,ISBN 1595584269 Spears,EllenGriffith,BaptizedinPCBs:Race,Pollution,andJusticeinanAll-AmericanTown,TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2014,ISBN 1469611716 Shiva,Vandana,StolenHarvest:TheHijackingoftheGlobalFoodSupply,SouthEndPress,2000,ISBN 0896086070. WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoMonsantoCompany. vteMonsantoPeopleCEO JohnFrancisQueeny(founder) EdgarMonsantoQueeny(sonoffounder,chairman) WilliamStandishKnowles(chairman) WilliamRand(?-1951) EdwardBock(?-1972) JohnHanley(?-1984) RichardMahoney(1984-1995) RobertShapiro(1996-2000) HughGrant(latestCEO) other HowardSchneiderman(researcher) RobertFraley(latestCTO) Subsidiaries DeKalbGeneticsCorporation Mobay Seminis Facilities Headquarters:CreveCoeur(Missouri,US) Agracetus Seminis Mobay Solutia(former) Products DDT PCBs AgentOrange recombinantbovinegrowthhormone Roundup(herbicide) Legalcasesandprotests MarchAgainstMonsanto MonsantoCanadaInc.v.Schmeiser Monsantolegalcases TheMonsantoYears TheWorldAccordingtoMonsanto Related Bayer BayeracquisitionofMonsanto(2018) Amusementparkattractions AdventureThruInnerSpace MonsantoHouseoftheFuture vteGeneticengineeringGeneticallymodifiedorganismsCropsMaize/corn MON810 MON863 StarLink Listofvarietiesofgeneticallymodifiedmaize/corn Potato Amflora Rice Goldenrice Soybean Roundupreadysoybean VistiveGold Tomato FlavrSavr Cotton Btcotton Other Apple Arabidopsis Brinjal Canola Papaya Rose SmartStax Sugarbeet Tobacco Trees Wheat Mustard AnimalsMammals Mouse Knockoutmouse Oncomouse Enviropig HermantheBull Knockoutrat Otheranimals Insects Fish Glofish Salmon Birds Frogs Bacteriaandviruses Ice-minusbacteria HepatitisBvaccine Oncolyticvirus ProcessesInsertingDNA Agrobacteria Biolistics Electroporation Genetictransduction Lipofection Microinjection Somaticcellnucleartransfer Transfection Types RecombinantDNA Transgenesis Cisgenesis UsesInagriculture Geneticallymodifiedfood Controversies Pharming Companies BASF Bayer DowAgroSciences DuPontPioneer Monsanto Syngenta Inhumansanddiagnostics Genetherapy Geneticenhancement Genetictesting Inresearch Geneknockout Geneknockdown Genetargeting Relatedarticles Transgene Detectionofgeneticallymodifiedorganisms Geneticpollution Geneticsinfiction Humanenhancement Reversetransfection Transhumanism Geneticuserestrictiontechnology Regulation CartagenaProtocolonBiosafety Geography Europe Africa Asia NorthAmerica(US) SouthAmerica Oceania Similarfields Syntheticbiology Cloning Stemcellresearch Biology Genetics Biotechnology Bioethics vteSeedcompaniesoftheUnitedStatesCurrent Asgrow BurpeeSeeds D.LandrethSeedCompany DeKalbGeneticsCorporation DuPontPioneer FedcoSeeds Ferry-MorseSeedCompany GoldenHarvestSeeds Gurney'sSeedandNurseryCompany J.W.JungSeedCompany L.TewelesSeedCo. McKenzieSeeds ParkSeedCompany R.H.Shumway SeedsofChange SouthernExposureSeedExchange StineSeed TrueLeafMarket WildseedFarms Historical Delta&PineLandCompanyofMississippi Monsanto ShakerSeedCompany AuthoritycontrolGeneral IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat(viaVIAF) Nationallibraries Norway UnitedStates Australia Scientificdatabases CiNii(Japan) Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monsanto&oldid=1069269885" Categories:Monsanto1901establishmentsinMissouri2018disestablishmentsinMissouriAccountingscandalsDefunctcompaniesbasedinMissouriAgriculturecompaniesestablishedin1901Agriculturecompaniesdisestablishedin2018Americancompaniesestablishedin1901Americancompaniesdisestablishedin2018Biotechnologycompaniesestablishedin1901Biotechnologycompaniesdisestablishedin2018Chemicalcompaniesestablishedin1901Chemicalcompaniesdisestablishedin2018BiotechnologycompaniesoftheUnitedStatesChemicalcompaniesoftheUnitedStatesCompaniesbasedinSt.LouisCounty,MissouriCompaniesformerlylistedontheNewYorkStockExchangeCorporatespin-offsGeneticengineeringandagricultureLifesciencesindustryAmericansubsidiariesofforeigncompaniesSeedcompanies2018mergersandacquisitionsBuildingsandstructuresinSt.LouisCounty,MissouriBayerHiddencategories:WebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksPagescontaininglinkstosubscription-onlycontentCS1errors:missingperiodicalCS1Spanish-languagesources(es)AllarticleswithdeadexternallinksArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromMarch2020ArticleswithpermanentlydeadexternallinksArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataUsemdydatesfromJuly2019AllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromApril2019CommonscategorylinkisonWikidataArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithISNIidentifiersArticleswithVIAFidentifiersArticleswithBIBSYSidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNLAidentifiersArticleswithCINIIidentifiersArticleswithWorldCat-VIAFidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةتۆرکجهBân-lâm-gúБългарскиBrezhonegCatalàČeštinaCymraegDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançais한국어HrvatskiBahasaIndonesiaItalianoעבריתLatviešuLietuviųMagyarМакедонскиBahasaMelayuNederlands日本語NorskbokmålPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусскийසිංහලSlovenčinaСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaதமிழ்ไทยTürkçeУкраїнська吴语粵語中文 Editlinks