Loire - Wikipedia

The Loire (/lwɑːr/, also US: /luˈɑːr/; French pronunciation: [lwaʁ] ( listen); Occitan: Léger, Occitan pronunciation: [ˈled͡ʒe]; Latin: Liger) is the longest ... Loire FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Thisarticleisabouttheriver.Forotheruses,seeLoire(disambiguation). "Loira"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeLoira(disambiguation). NottobeconfusedwiththeLoir,atributaryoftheSarthe. LongestriverinFrance LoireTheLoireinMaine-et-LoireMapofFrancewiththeLoirehighlightedNativenameLéger  (Occitan)Liger  (Breton)LocationCountryFrancePhysical characteristicsSourceMassifCentral • locationSainte-Eulalie,Ardèche • coordinates44°49′48″N4°13′20″E/44.83000°N4.22222°E/44.83000;4.22222 • elevation1,408 m(4,619 ft)[1] MouthAtlanticOcean • locationSaint-Nazaire,Loire-Atlantique • coordinates47°16′09″N2°11′09″W/47.26917°N2.18583°W/47.26917;-2.18583Coordinates:47°16′09″N2°11′09″W/47.26917°N2.18583°W/47.26917;-2.18583 • elevation0 m(0 ft)Length1,006 km(625 mi)[2]Basinsize117,000 km2(45,000 sq mi)[1]Discharge  • locationMontjean-sur-Loire[3] • average835.3 m3/s(29,500 cu ft/s)[3] • minimum60 m3/s(2,100 cu ft/s) • maximum4,150 m3/s(147,000 cu ft/s) Basin featuresTributaries  • leftAllier,Cher,Indre,Vienne,SèvreNantaise • rightMaine,Nièvre,Erdre UNESCOWorldHeritageSiteOfficial nameTheLoireValleybetweenSully-sur-LoireandChalonnesCriteriaCultural: (i)(ii)(iv)Reference933bisInscription2000(24thSession)Extensions2017Area86,021 ha(212,560acres)Buffer zone213,481 ha(527,520acres) TheLoire(/lwɑːr/,alsoUS:/luˈɑːr/;Frenchpronunciation: [lwaʁ](listen);Occitan:Léger,Occitanpronunciation: [ˈled͡ʒe];Latin:Liger)isthelongestriverinFranceandthe171stlongestintheworld.[4]Withalengthof1,006kilometres(625 mi),[2]itdrains117,054 km2(45,195 sq mi),morethanafifthofFrance'sland,[1]whileitsaveragedischargeisonlyhalfthatoftheRhône. ItrisesinthesoutheasternquarteroftheFrenchMassifCentralintheCévennesrange(inthedepartmentofArdèche)at1,350 m(4,430 ft)nearMontGerbierdeJonc;itflowsnorththroughNeverstoOrléans,thenwestthroughToursandNantesuntilitreachestheBayofBiscay(AtlanticOcean)atSaint-Nazaire.ItsmaintributariesincludetheriversNièvre,MaineandtheErdreonitsrightbank,andtheriversAllier,Cher,Indre,Vienne,andtheSèvreNantaiseontheleftbank. TheLoiregivesitsnametosixdepartments:Loire,Haute-Loire,Loire-Atlantique,Indre-et-Loire,Maine-et-Loire,andSaône-et-Loire.Thelower-centralswatheofitsvalleystraddlingthePaysdelaLoireandCentre-ValdeLoireregionswasaddedtotheWorldHeritageSiteslistofUNESCOonDecember2,2000.Vineyardsandchâteauxarefoundalongthebanksoftheriverthroughoutthissectionandareamajortouristattraction. ThehumanhistoryoftheLoirerivervalleyisthoughtbysometobeginwiththeMiddlePalaeolithicperiodof90–40kya(thousandyearsago),followedbymodernhumans(about30kya),succeededbytheNeolithicperiod(6,000to4,500 BC),alloftherecentStoneAgeinEurope.ThencametheGauls,thelocaltribesduringtheIronAgeperiodof1500to500 BC.TheyusedtheLoireasakeytradingrouteby600 BC,usingpackhorsestolinkitstrade,suchasthemetalsoftheArmoricanMassif,withPhoeniciaandAncientGreeceviaLyonontheRhône.Gallicruleendedinthevalleyin56 BCwhenJuliusCaesarconqueredtheadjacentprovincesforRome.Christianitywasintroducedintothisvalleyfromthe3rdcenturyAD,asmissionaries(manylaterrecognizedassaints),convertedthepagans.Inthisperiod,settlersestablishedvineyardsandbeganproducingwines.[5] TheLoireValleyhasbeencalledthe"GardenofFrance"andisstuddedwithoverathousandchâteaux,eachwithdistinctarchitecturalembellishmentscoveringawiderangeofvariations,[6]fromtheearlymedievaltothelateRenaissanceperiods.[5]Theywereoriginallycreatedasfeudalstrongholds,overcenturiespast,inthestrategicdividebetweensouthernandnorthernFrance;nowmanyareprivatelyowned.[7] Contents 1Etymology 2Geography 2.1Tributaries 3Geology 4Dischargeandfloodregulation 5Navigation 6Climate 7Flora 8Wildlife 8.1Plankton 8.2Fish 8.3Amphibians 8.4Avifauna 9Conservation 10History 10.1Prehistoricperiod 10.2AncientRome,AlansandtheVikings 10.3Medievalperiod 10.41600–present 10.5Timeline 11LoireValley 11.1Architecture 11.1.1Châteaux 11.2Winemaking 11.3Art 12Seealso 13References 14Bibliography 15Externallinks Etymology[edit] Thename"Loire"comesfromLatinLiger,[8]whichisitselfatranscriptionofthenativeGaulish(Celtic)nameoftheriver.TheGaulishnamecomesfromtheGaulishwordliga,whichmeans"silt,sediment,deposit,alluvium",awordthatgaveFrenchlie,asinsurlie,whichinturngaveEnglishlees. LigacomesfromtheProto-Indo-Europeanroot*legʰ-,meaning"tolie,lay"asintheWelshwordLleyg,andalsowhichgavemanywordsinEnglish,suchastolie,tolay,ledge,law,etc. Geography[edit] Source ThesourceoftheriverliesintheeasternMassifCentral,inspringstothesouthsideofMontGerbierdeJoncat44°50′38″N4°13′12″E/44.84389°N4.22000°E/44.84389;4.22000.[4][9]Thisliesinthenorth-easternpartofthesouthernCévenneshighlands,intheArdèchecommuneofSainte-EulalieofsoutheasternFrance.Itisoriginallyameretrickleofwaterlocatedat1,408 m(4,619 ft)abovesea-level.[1]ThepresenceofanaquiferunderMontGerbierdeJoncgivesrisetomultiplesources,threeofthemlocatedatthefootofMounthavebeenhighlightedasriversources.ThethreestreamsconvergetoformtheLoire,whichdescendsthevalleysouthofMountthroughthevillageofSainte-Eulalieitself. TheriverportofRoanne TheLoirechangeditscourse,duetotectonicdeformations,fromtheoriginaloutfallintotheEnglishChanneltoitsnewoutfallintotheAtlanticOceantherebyformingtoday'snarrowterrainofgorges,theLoireValleywithalluviumformationsandthelongstretchofbeachesalongtheAtlanticOcean.[1]Therivercanbedividedintothreemainzones:[1] theUpperLoire,theareafromthesourcetotheconfluencewiththeAllier themiddleLoireValley,theareafromtheAlliertotheconfluencewiththeMaine,about280 km(170 mi) theLowerLoire,theareafromMainetotheestuary Intheupperbasintheriverflowsthroughanarrow,incisedvalley,markedbygorgesandforestsontheedgesandadistinctlowpopulation.[1]Intheintermediatesection,thealluvialplainbroadensandtherivermeandersandforksintomultiplechannels.RiverflowisparticularlyhighintheriverareanearRoanneandVichyuptotheconfluencewiththeAllier.[1]InthemiddlesectionoftheriverintheLoireValley,numerousdikesbuiltbetweenthe12thand19thcenturyexist,providingmitigationagainstflooding.Inthissectiontheriverisrelativelystraight,exceptfortheareanearOrléans,andnumeroussandbanksandislandsexist.[1]Thelowercourseoftheriverischaracterizedbywetlandsandfens,whichareofmajorimportancetoconservation,giventhattheyformuniquehabitatsformigratorybirds.[1] ConfluenceoftheAllierandtheLoire TheLoireflowsroughlynorthwardthroughRoanneandNeverstoOrléansandthereafterwestwardthroughTourstoNantes,whereitformsanestuary.ItflowsintotheAtlanticOceanat47°16′44″N2°10′19″W/47.27889°N2.17194°W/47.27889;-2.17194betweenSaint-NazaireandSaint-Brevin-les-Pins,connectedbyabridgeovertherivernearitsmouth.SeveraldépartementsofFrancewerenamedaftertheLoire.TheLoireflowsthroughthefollowingdépartementsandtowns: Ardèche Haute-Loire LePuy-en-Velay Loire Feurs Roanne Saône-et-Loire Digoin Allier Nièvre Decize Nevers LaCharité-sur-Loire Cosne-Cours-sur-Loire Cher Sancerre Loiret Briare Gien Orléans Loir-et-Cher Blois Indre-et-Loire Amboise Tours Maine-et-Loire: Montsoreau Saumur Loire-Atlantique Ancenis Nantes Saint-Nazaire TheLoireValleyintheLoireriverbasin,isa300 km(190 mi)stretchinthewesternreachoftheriverstartingwithOrléansandterminatingatNantes,56 km(35 mi)shortoftheLoireestuaryandtheAtlanticOcean.Thetidalstretchoftheriverextendstoalengthof60 km(37 mi)andawidthof3 km(1.9 mi),whichhasoilrefineries,theportofSaint-Nazaireand40,000hectares(99,000acres)ofwetlandwhoseformationisdatedto7500 BC(causedbyinundationbyseawatersonthenorthernbankoftheestuary),andthebeachesofLeCroisicandLaBaulealongthecoastline.[10] Tributaries[edit] MapoftheLoirebasinshowingthemajortributaries Mainarticle:TributariesoftheLoire ItsmaintributariesincludetheriversMaine,NièvreandtheErdreonitsrightbank,andtheriversAllier,Cher,Indre,Vienne,andtheSèvreNantaiseontheleftbank.ThelargesttributaryoftheriveristheAllier,410 km(250 mi)inlength,whichjoinstheLoirenearthetownofNeversat46°57′34″N3°4′44″E/46.95944°N3.07889°E/46.95944;3.07889.[1][4]DownstreamofNeversliestheLoireValley,aUNESCOWorldHeritageSiteduetoitsfineassortmentofcastles.Thesecond-longesttributary,the372 km(231 mi)Vienne,joinstheLoireatCandes-Saint-Martinat47°12′45″N0°4′31″E/47.21250°N0.07528°E/47.21250;0.07528,followedbythe367.5 km(228.4 mi)Cher,whichjoinstheLoirenearCinq-Mars-la-Pileat47°20′33″N0°28′49″E/47.34250°N0.48028°E/47.34250;0.48028andthe287 km(178 mi)Indre,whichjoinstheLoirenearNémanat47°14′2″N0°11′0″E/47.23389°N0.18333°E/47.23389;0.18333.[1] Acheneau(inLePellerin) SèvreNantaise(inNantes) Erdre(inNantes) Èvre(inLeMarillais) Layon(inChalonnes-sur-Loire) Maine(nearAngers) Mayenne(nearAngers) Oudon(inLeLion-d'Angers) Verzée(inSegré) Ernée(inSaint-Jean-sur-Mayenne) Sarthe(nearAngers) Loir(northofAngers) Braye(inPont-de-Braye) Aigre(nearCloyes-sur-le-Loir) Yerre(nearCloyes-sur-le-Loir) Conie(nearChâteaudun) Ozanne(inBonneval) Vaige(inSablé-sur-Sarthe) Vègre(inAvoise) Huisne(inLeMans) Authion(inSainte-Gemmes-sur-Loire) Thouet(nearSaumur) Dive(nearSaint-Just-sur-Dive) Losse(nearMontreuil-Bellay) Argenton(nearSaint-Martin-de-Sanzay) Thouaret(nearTaizé) Cébron(nearSaint-Loup-sur-Thouet) Palais(nearParthenay) Viette(nearParthenay) Vienne(inMontsoreauandCandes-Saint-Martin) Creuse(northofChâtellerault) Gartempe(inLaRoche-Posay) Anglin(inAngles-sur-l'Anglin) Salleron(inIngrandes) Benaize(inSaint-Hilaire-sur-Benaize) Abloux(inPrissac) Brame(inDarnac) Semme(inDroux) PetiteCreuse(inFresselines) Clain(inChâtellerault) Clouère(inChâteau-Larcher) Briance(inCondat-sur-Vienne) Taurion(inSaint-Priest-Taurion) Indre(eastofCandes-Saint-Martin) Indrois(inAzay-sur-Indre) Cher(inVillandry) Sauldre(inSelles-sur-Cher) Rère(inVilleherviers) Arnon(nearVierzon) Théols(inBommiers) Yèvre(inVierzon) Auron(inBourges) Airain(inSavigny-en-Septaine) Tardes(inÉvaux-les-Bains) Voueize(inChambon-sur-Voueize) Beuvron(inChaumont-sur-Loire) Cosson(inCandé-sur-Beuvron) Loiret(inOrléans) Vauvise(inSaint-Satur) Allier(nearNevers) Sioule(inLaFerté-Hauterive) Bouble(inSaint-Pourçain-sur-Sioule) Dore(nearPuy-Guillaume) Allagnon(nearJumeaux) Senouire(nearBrioude) Ance(inMonistrol-d'Allier) Chapeauroux(inSaint-Christophe-d'Allier) Nièvre(inNevers) Acolin(nearDecize) Aron(inDecize) Alène(inCercy-la-Tour) Besbre(nearDompierre-sur-Besbre) Arroux(inDigoin) Bourbince(inDigoin) Arconce(inVarenne-Saint-Germain) LignonduForez(inFeurs) Furan(inAndrézieux-Bouthéon) Ondaine(inUnieux) LignonduVelay(inMonistrol-sur-Loire) Geology[edit] ThegeologicalformationsintheLoireriverbasincanbegroupedintotwosetsofformations,namely,thebasementdomainandthedomainofsedimentaryformations.Thebasementdomainprimarilyconsistsofmetamorphicandsiliceousfragmentedrockswithgroundwateroccurringinfissures.Thesedimentarydomainconsistsoflimestoneandcarbonaceousrocks,that,wheresaturated,formproductiveaquifers.Rockoutcropsofgraniteorbasaltalsoareexposedintheriverbedinseveralstretches.[11] Themiddlestretchesoftheriverhavemanylimestonecaveswhichwereinhabitedbyhumansintheprehistoricera;thecavesareseveraltypesoflimestoneformations,namelytuffeau(aporoustypeofchalk,nottobeconfusedwithtufa)andFalun(formed12 millionyearsago).Thecoastalzoneshowsharddarkstones,granite,schistandthicksoilmantle.[10] Dischargeandfloodregulation[edit] TheLoireatDecize TheLoirespannedatNantes Theriverhasadischargerateof863 m3/s(30,500 cu ft/s),whichisanaverageovertheperiod1967–2008.[1] Thedischargeratevariesstronglyalongtheriver,withroughly350 m3/s(12,000 cu ft/s)atOrléansand900 m3/s(32,000 cu ft/s)atthemouth.Italsodependsstronglyontheseason,andtheflowofonly10 m3/s(350 cu ft/s)isnotuncommoninAugust–SeptembernearOrléans.Duringfloods,whichusuallyoccurinFebruaryandMarch[12]butalsoinotherperiods,[4]theflowsometimesexceeds2,000 m3/s(71,000 cu ft/s)fortheUpperLoireand8,000 m3/s(280,000 cu ft/s)intheLowerLoire.[12]Themostseriousfloodsoccurredin1856,1866and1911.UnlikemostotherriversinwesternEurope,thereareveryfewdamsorlockscreatingobstaclestoitsnaturalflow.Theflowisnolongerpartlyregulatedbythreedams:GrangentDamandVillerestDamontheLoireandNaussacDamontheAllier.TheVillerestdam,builtin1985afewkilometres(afewmiles)southofRoanne,[13]hasplayedakey-roleinpreventingrecentflooding.Asaresult,theLoireisaverypopularriverforboatingexcursions,flowingthroughapastoralcountryside,pastlimestonecliffsandhistoriccastles.Fournuclearpowerplantsarelocatedontheriver:Belleville,Chinon,DampierreandSaint-Laurent. Navigation[edit] In1700theportofNantesnumberedmoreinlandwaterwaycraftthananyotherportinFrance,testifyingtothehistoricimportanceofnavigationonFrance’slongestriver.Shallow-draughtgabaresandotherrivercraftcontinuedtotransportgoodsintotheindustrialera,includingcoalfromSaint-ÉtienneloadedontobargesinOrléans.However,thehazardousfree-flownavigationandlimitedtonnagesmeantthatrailwaysrapidlykilledoffthesurvivingtrafficfromthe1850s.In1894acompanywassetuptopromoteimprovementstothenavigationfromNantestoBriare.Theworkswereauthorisedin1904andcarriedoutintwophasesfromAngerstothelimitoftidesatOudon.Theseworks,withgroynesandsubmersibleembankments,surviveandcontributetothelimitednavigabilityunderpresent-dayconditions.[14]AdamacrosstheLoireatSaint-Léger-des-VignesprovidesnavigableconditionstocrossfromtheCanalduNivernaistotheCanallatéralàlaLoire. Asof2017[update],thefollowingsectionsarenavigable: Loiremaritime:53 kmfromtheAtlanticOceanatSaint-NazairetoNantes,nolocks[15] Loire:84 kmfromNantestoBouchemainenearAngers,nolocks[16] CanallatéralàlaLoire:196 kmfromBriaretoDigoin,paralleltotheriver,36locks[17] CanaldeRoanneàDigoin:56 kmfromDigointoRoanne,paralleltotheriver,10locks[18] Climate[edit] LoireatBréhémont,Indre-et-Loire TheFrenchlanguageadjectiveligérienisderivedfromthenameoftheLoire,asinleclimatligérien("theclimateoftheLoireValley").TheclimateisconsideredthemostpleasantofnorthernFrance,withwarmerwintersand,moregenerally,fewerextremesintemperatures,rarelyexceeding38 °C(100 °F).Itisidentifiedastemperatemaritimeclimate,andischaracterisedbythelackofdryseasonsandbyheavyrainsandsnowfallinwinter,especiallyintheupperstreams.[4]Thenumberofsunnyhoursperyearvariesbetween1400and2200andincreasesfromnorthwesttosoutheast.[1] TheLoireValley,inparticular,enjoysapleasanttemperateclimate.Theregionexperiencesarainfallof690 mm(27.2 in)alongthecoastand648 mm(25.5 in)inland.[10] Flora[edit] Greengageblossom TheCentreregionoftheLoirerivervalleyaccountsforthelargestforestinFrance,theforestofOrléans(French:Forêtd'Orléans),coveringanareaof38,234hectares(94,480acres),andthe5,440-hectare(13,400-acre)forestedparkknownasthe"ForetdeChambord".Othervegetationinthevalley,mostlyunderprivatecontrol,consistsoftreespeciesofoak,beechandpine.Inthemarshylands,ash,alderandwillowsaregrownwithduckweedprovidingtheneedednaturalfertilizingeffect.TheAtlanticcoastishometoseveralaquaticherbs,theimportantspeciesisSalicornia,whichisusedasaculinaryingredientonaccountofitsdiureticvalue.Greeksintroducedvines.Romansintroducedmelons,apples,cherries,quincesandpearsduringtheMiddleAges,apartfromextractingsaffronfrompurplecrocusspeciesintheOrléans.Reineclaude(Prunusdomesticaitalica)treespecieswasplantedinthegardensoftheChâteau.AsparaguswasalsobroughtfromnorthwesternFrance.[19] Wildlife[edit] TheriverflowsthroughthecontinentalecoregionsofMassifcentralandBassinParisiensouthandinitsLowercoursepartlythroughSouthAtlanticandBrittany.[1] Plankton[edit] Withmorethan100algaspecies,theLoirehasthehighestphytoplanktondiversityamongFrenchrivers.Themostabundantarediatomsandgreenalgae(about15%bymass)whichmostlyoccurinthelowerreaches.Theirtotalmassislowwhentheriverflowexceeds800 m3/s(28,000 cu ft/s)andbecomesignificantatflowsof300 m3/s(11,000 cu ft/s)orlowerwhichoccurinsummer.Withdecreasingflow,firstspecieswhichappeararesingle-celleddiatomssuchasCyclostephanosinvisitatus,C.meneghiniana,S.HantzschiiandThalassiosirapseudonana.TheyarethenjoinedbymulticellularformsincludingFragilariacrotonensis,NitzschiafruticosaandSkeletonemapotamos,aswellasgreenalgaewhichformstar-shapedorprostratecolonies.Whereasthetotalbiomassislowintheupperreaches,thebiodiversityishigh,withmorethan250taxaatOrléans.Athighflowsandintheupperreachesthefractionofthegreenalgaedecreaseandthephytoplanktonisdominatedbydiatoms.Heterotrophicbacteriaarerepresentedbycocci(49%),rods(35%),colonies(12%)andfilaments(4%)withatotaldensityofupto1.4×1010cellsperlitre.[1] Fish[edit] Europeaneel(Anguillaanguilla) NearlyeveryfreshwaterfishspeciesofFrancecanbefoundintheLoireriverbasin,thatis,about57speciesfrom20families.Manyofthemaremigratory,with11speciesascendingtheriverforspawning.ThemostcommonspeciesaretheAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar),seatrout(Salmotrutta),shads(AlosaalosaandAlosafallax),sealamprey(Petromyzonmarinus)Europeanriverlamprey(Lampetrafluviatilis)andsmelt(Osmeruseperlanus).TheEuropeaneel(Anguillaanguilla)iscommonintheupperstreams,whereastheflounder(Platichtysflesus)andflatheadmullet(Mugilspp.)tendtostayneartherivermouth.Thetributarieshostbrowntrout(Salmotrutta),Europeanbullhead(Cottusgobio),Europeanbrooklamprey(Lampetraplaneri),zander(Sanderlucioperca),nase(ChondrostomanasusandC.toxostoma)andwelscatfish(Silurisglanis).Theendangeredspeciesincludegrayling(Thymallusthymallus),burbot(Lotalota)andbitterling(Rhodeussericeus)andthenon-nativespeciesarerepresentedbytherockbass(Ambloplitesrupestris).[1] AlthoughonlyonenativefishspecieshasbecomeextinctintheLoire,namelytheEuropeanseasturgeon(Acipensersturio)inthe1940s,thefishpopulationisdeclining,mostlyduetothedecreaseinthespawningareas.Thelatteraremostlyaffectedbytheindustrialpollution,constructionofdamsanddrainageofoxbowsandswamps.Thelossofspawninggroundsmostlyaffectsthepike(Esoxlucius),whichisthemajorpredatoroftheLoire,aswellaseel,carp,ruddandsalmon.ThegreatLoiresalmon,asubspeciesofAtlanticsalmon,isregardedasthesymbolicfishoftheriver.Itspopulationhasdecreasedfromabout100,000inthe19thcenturytobelow100inthe1990sthatresultedintheadoptionofatotalbanofsalmonfishingintheLoirebasinin1984.Asalmonrestorationprogramwasinitiatedinthe1980sandincludedsuchasmeasuresasremovaloftwoobsoletehydroelectricdamsandintroductionofjuvenilestock.Asaresult,thesalmonpopulationincreasedtoabout500in2005.[1] Amphibians[edit] Yellow-belliedtoad MostamphibiansoftheLoirearefoundintheslowflowareasnearthedelta,especiallyinthefloodplain,marshesandoxbows.Theyaredominatedbythefiresalamander(Salamandrasalamandra),frogsandtoads.ThetoadsincludeBufobufo,Alytesobstetricans,Bombinavariegata,Bufocalamita,PelobatesfuscusandPelobatescultripes.ThefrogsarerepresentedbytheParsleyfrog(Peloditespunctatus),Europeantreefrog(Hylaarborea),CommonFrog(Ranatemporaria),AgileFrog(R.dalmatina),EdibleFrog(R.esculenta),Perez'sFrog(R.perezi),marshfrog(R.ridubunda)andPoolFrog(R.lessonae).NewtsoftheLoireincludetheMarbledNewt(Triturusmarmoratus),SmoothNewt(T.vulgaris),AlpineNewt(T.alpestris)andPalmateNewt(T.helveticus).[1] Avifauna[edit] Mediterraneangull TheLoirehostsabout64%ofnestingbirdspeciesofFrance,thatis164species,ofwhich54arewaterbirds,44speciesarecommonformanagedforests,41tonaturalforests,13toopenand12torockyareas.Thisavifaunahasbeenratherstable,atleastbetweenthe1980sand2000s,withsignificantabundancevariationsobservedonlyfor17species.Ofthose,fivespeciesweregrowinginpopulation,fourdeclining,andothereightwerefluctuating.Someofthesevariationshadaglobalnature,suchastheexpansionoftheMediterraneangullinEurope.[1] Conservation[edit] TheLoirehasbeendescribedas"constantlyunderthreatoflosingitsstatusasthelastwildriverinFrance".[20]Thereasonforthisisitssheerlengthandpossibilityofextensivenavigation,whichseverelylimitsthescopeofriverconservation.[20]TheFederation,amemberoftheIUCNsince1970,hasbeenveryimportantinthecampaigntosavetheLoireriversystemfromdevelopment.[21] LoireVivanteWWFprotestsin1989againsttheproposedSerredelaFaredam In1986,theFrenchgovernment,theLoire-BrittanyWaterAgencyandtheEPALAsettledanagreementonfloodpreventionandwater storageprogrammeinthebasin,involvingconstructionoffourlargedams,oneontheLoireitselfandthreeontheAllierandCher.[22]TheFrenchgovernmentproposedaconstructionofadamatSerredelaFareontheupperLoirewhichwouldhavebeenanenvironmentalcatastrophe,asitwouldhaveinundatedsome20 km(12 mi)ofpristinegorges.[22]Asaresult,theWWFandotherNGOsestablishedtheLoireVivante(LivingLoire)networkin1988toopposethisandarrangedaninitialmeetingwiththeFrenchMinisteroftheEnvironment.[22]TheFrenchgovernmentinitiallyrejectedtheconservationconcernsandin1989gavetheprojectsthegreenlight.[22]ThissparkedpublicdemonstrationsbytheWWFandconservationgroups.[22]In1990,LoireVivantemetwiththeFrenchPrimeMinisterandthegovernment,successfully,asthegovernmentdemandedthattheEPALAembarkuponmajorreformsinitsapproachtomanagingtheriver.[22]Duetoextensivelobbying,theproposalandtheotherdamproposalswereeventuallyrejectedinthe1990s.Thegorgeszonehassincebeenprotectedasa‘Natura2000’siteunderEuropeanUnionenvironmentallegislation.[22] ApristinegorgeoftheLoire TheWWFwereparticularlyimportantinchangingtheperceptionoftheFrenchauthoritiesinsupportfordambuildingtoenvironmentalprotectionandsustainablemanagementofitsriverbasin.[22]In1992,theyaidedthe‘LoireNature’project,whichreceivedfundsofsome$US9millionundertheEU's‘LIFE’programmeuntil1999,embarkinguponrestorationtotheriver'secosystemsandwildlife.[22]Thatyear,theUpperLoireValleyFarmersAssociationwasalsoestablishedthroughapartnershipbetweenSOSLoireVivanteandafarmers’uniontopromotesustainableruraltourism.[22]TheFrenchgovernmentadoptedtheNaturalLoireRiverPlan(PlanLoireGrandeurNature)inJanuary1994,initiatingthedecommissioningofthreedamsontheriver.[23]ThefinaldamwasdecommissionedbyÉlectricitédeFranceatacostof7 millionfrancsin1998.[23]Thebasisofthedecisionwasthattheeconomicbenefitsofthedamsdidnotoutweightheirsignificantecologicalimpacts,sotheintentionwastorestoretheriverineecosystemsandreplenishgreatLoiresalmonstocks.[23]TheLoireisuniqueinthisrespectastheAtlanticsalmoncanswimasfaras900 km(560 mi)uptheriverandspawnintheupperreachesoftheAllier.TheFrenchgovernmentundertookthismajorplan,chieflybecausepollutionandoverfishinghadreducedapproximately100,000salmonmigratingannuallytotheirspawninggroundsintheheadwatersoftheLoireanditstributariestojust67salmonin1996ontheupperAllier.[22] TheWWF,BirdLifeInternational,andlocalconservationbodieshavealsomadeconsiderableeffortstoimprovetheconservationoftheLoireestuaryanditssurroundings,giventhattheyareuniquehabitatsformigratingbirds.Theestuaryanditsshorelinearealsoimportantforfishing,shellfishfarmingandtourism.ThemajorcommercialportatNanteshascausedseveredamagetotheecosystemoftheLoireestuary.[22] In2002,theWWFaidedasecondLoireNatureprojectandexpandeditsscopetotheentirebasin,addressingsome4,500hectares(11,000acres)oflandunderabudgetofUS$18 million,mainlyfundedbygovernmentandpublicbodies,suchastheÉtablissementPubliqueLoire(EPL),apublicinstitutionwhichhadformerlyadvocatedlarge-scaledamprojectsontheriver.[22] History[edit] TheLoireasitflowsthroughBlois. Prehistoricperiod[edit] Studiesofthepalaeo-geographyoftheregionsuggestthatthepalaeo-LoireflowednorthwardandjoinedtheSeine,[24][25]whilethelowerLoirefounditssourceupstreamofOrléansintheregionofGien,flowingwestwardalongthepresentcourse.AtacertainpointduringthelonghistoryofupliftintheParisBasin,thelower,AtlanticLoirecapturedthe"palaeo-Loire"orLoireséquanaise("SeineLoire"),producingthepresentriver.TheformerbedoftheLoireséquanaiseisoccupiedbytheLoing. TheLoireValleyhasbeeninhabitedsincetheMiddlePalaeolithicperiodfrom40–90 ka.[26]Neanderthalmanusedstonetoolstofashionboatsoutoftreetrunksandnavigatedtheriver.[citationneeded]ModernmaninhabitedtheLoirevalleyaround30 ka.[26]Byaround5000to4000 BC,theybeganclearingforestsalongtheriveredgesandcultivatingthelandsandrearinglivestock.[26]Theybuiltmegalithstoworshipthedead,especiallyfromaround3500 BC.TheGaulsarrivedinthevalleybetween1500and500 BC,andtheCarnutessettledinCenabuminwhatisnowOrléansandbuiltabridgeovertheriver.[26]By600 BCtheLoirehadalreadybecomeaveryimportanttradingroutebetweentheCeltsandtheGreeks.Akeytransportationroute,itservedasoneofthegreat"highways"ofFranceforover2000years.[7]ThePhoeniciansandGreekshadusedpackhorsestotransportgoodsfromLyontotheLoiretogetfromtheMediterraneanbasintotheAtlanticcoast. AncientRome,AlansandtheVikings[edit] TheVikingsinvadingin879 TheRomanssuccessfullysubduedtheGaulsin52 BCandbegandevelopingCenabum,whichtheynamedAurelianis.TheyalsobeganbuildingthecityofCaesarodunum,nowTours,fromAD 1.[26]TheRomansusedtheLoireasfarasRoanne,around150 km(93 mi)downriverfromthesource.AfterAD 16,theLoirerivervalleybecamepartoftheRomanprovinceofAquitania,withitscapitalatAvaricum.[26]Fromthe3rdcentury,Christianityspreadthroughtheriverbasin,andmanyreligiousfiguresbegancultivatingvineyardsalongtheriverbanks.[26] Inthe5thcentury,theRomanEmpiredeclinedandtheFranksandtheAlemannicametotheareafromtheeast.FollowingthistherewasongoingconflictbetweentheFranksandtheVisigoths.[27]In408,theIraniantribeofAlanscrossedtheLoireandlargehordesofthemsettledalongthemiddlecourseoftheLoireinGaulunderKingSangiban.[28]ManyinhabitantsaroundthepresentcityofOrléanshavenamesbearingwitnesstotheAlanpresence–Allaines. Inthe9thcentury,theVikingsbeganinvadingthewestcoastofFrance,usinglongshipstonavigatetheLoire.In853theyattackedanddestroyedToursanditsfamousabbey,laterdestroyingAngersinraidsof854and872.[27]In877CharlestheBalddied,markinganendtotheCarolingiandynasty.Afterconsiderableconflictintheregion,in898FoulquesleRouxofAnjougainedpower.[29] ChâteaudeMontsoreau(1453)istheonlyChâteauoftheLoireValleytobebuiltdirectlyintheLoireriverbed. Medievalperiod[edit] DuringtheHundredYears'Warfrom1337to1453,theLoiremarkedtheborderbetweentheFrenchandtheEnglish,whooccupiedterritorytothenorth.One-thirdoftheinhabitantsdiedintheepidemicoftheBlackDeathof1348–9.[29]TheEnglishdefeatedtheFrenchin1356andAquitainecameunderEnglishcontrolin1360.In1429,JoanofArcpersuadedCharlesVIItodriveouttheEnglishfromthecountry.[30]HersuccessfulreliefofthesiegeofOrléans,ontheLoire,wastheturningpointofthewar. Orléans In1477,thefirstprintingpressinFrancewasestablishedinAngers,andaroundthistimetheChateaudeLangeaisandChateaudeMontsoreauwerebuilt.[31]DuringthereignofFrançoisIfrom1515to1547,theItalianRenaissancehadaprofoundinfluenceupontheregion,aspeopleadopteditselementsinthearchitectureandculture,particularlyamongtheelitewhoexpresseditsprinciplesintheirchateaus.[32][33] Inthe1530s,theReformationideasreachedtheLoirevalley,withsomepeoplebecomingProtestant.Religiouswarsfollowedandin1560CatholicsdrownedseveralhundredProtestantsintheriver.[31][34]DuringtheWarsofReligionfrom1562to1598,OrléansservedasaprominentstrongholdfortheHuguenotsbutin1568,ProtestantsblewupOrléansCathedral.[35][36]In1572some3000HuguenotswereslaughteredinParisintheSt.Bartholomew'sDaymassacre.HundredsmoreweredrownedintheLoirebyCatholics.[31] 1600–present[edit] An1840posteradvertisingexcursionsontheriver Forcenturieslocalpeopleusedwoodenembankmentsanddredgingtotrytomaintainanavigablechannelontheriver,asitwascriticaltotransportation.Rivertrafficincreasedgradually,withatollsystembeingusedinmedievaltimes.Todaysomeofthesetollbridgesstillremain,datedtoover800years.[37]Duringthe17thcentury,Jean-BaptisteColbertinstitutedtheuseofstoneretainingwallsandquaysfromRoannetoNantes,whichhelpedmaketherivermorereliable,[38]butnavigationwasstillfrequentlystoppedbyexcessiveconditionsduringfloodanddrought.In1707,floodsweresaidtohavedrowned50,000peopleintherivervalley,[39]withthewaterrisingmorethan3 m(9.8 ft)intwohoursinOrléans.TypicallypassengertraveldownriverfromOrléanstoNantestookeightdays,withtheupstreamjourneyagainsttheflowtakingfourteen.ItwasalsoadumpinggroundforprisonersintheWarintheVendeesincetheythoughtitwasamoreeffectivewayofkilling. Soonafterthebeginningofthe19thcentury,steam-drivenpassengerboatsbegantoplytheriverbetweenNantesandOrléans,makingtheupriverjourneyfaster;by1843,70,000passengerswerebeingcarriedannuallyintheLowerLoireand37,000intheUpperLoire.[40]Butcompetitionfromtherailway,beginninginthe1840s,causedadeclineintradeontheriver.ProposalstodevelopafullynavigableriveruptoBriarecametonothing.TheopeningoftheCanallatéralàlaLoirein1838enablednavigationbetweenDigoinandBriaretocontinue,[41]buttheriverlevelcrossingatBriareremainedaproblemuntiltheconstructionoftheBriareaqueductin1896.At662.69metres(2,174.2 ft),thiswasthelongestsuchstructureintheworldforquitesometime.[41] TheCanaldeRoanneàDigoinwasalsoopenedin1838.Itwasnearlyclosedin1971but,intheearly21stcentury,itstillprovidesnavigationfurtheruptheLoirevalleytoDigoin.[41][42]The261 km(162 mi)CanaldeBerry,anarrowcanalwithlocksonly2.7 m(8.9 ft)wide,whichwasopenedinthe1820sandconnectedtheCanallatéralàlaLoireatMarseilles-lès-AubignytotheriverCheratNoyersandbackintotheLoirenearTours,wasclosedin1955. TheriverisofficiallynavigableasfarasBouchemaine,[43]wheretheMainejoinsitnearAngers.AnothershortstretchmuchfurtherupstreamatDecizeisalsonavigable,whereariverlevelcrossingfromtheCanallatéralàlaLoireconnectstotheCanalduNivernais. In2022,adroughtrenderedpartsoftheLoireunnavigableforfishandwatervesselsastheywerepartiallyorcompletelydriedup.[44] Timeline[edit] ThemonarchyofFranceruledintheLoireValleyforseveralcenturies,givingitthenameof"TheValleyofKings".TheserulersstartedwiththeGauls,followedbytheRomans,andtheFrankishDynasty.TheyweresucceededbythekingsofFrance,whoruledfromthelate14thcenturytilltheFrenchRevolution;togethertheserulerscontributedtothedevelopmentofthevalley.Thechronologyoftherulersispresented;inthetablebelow.[5] Ruler Periodofreign Remarks Gauls 1500–500 BC IronAge.SettledinCenabum(Orléans)andArabou.TradingalongtheLoire Romans 52 BC-5thcentury SpreadofChristianityamongcommunitieslivingalongtheLoireriverbanksandBenedictineOrderprospered. FrankishDynastyandfeudallords 5th–10thcenturies Powerstrugglesamongfeudalstates.CharlesMarteldefeatedMoorsatPoitierspreventingMuslimincursions.Attila,leaderofHunswasstoppedfromenteringtheOrléanscity. JeanII 1350–1364 WasdefeatedbyEngland.CededterritorytotheEnglishCrown CharlesVI 1380–1422 RuledduringthepeakofHundredYears'War.Wasknownasthemadkingor‘lefou’.MarriedhisdaughtertoHenryV,theKingofEngland,andwhowasalsodeclaredheirtothethroneofFrance. CharlesVII 1422–1461 HewashelpedbythefamousJoanofArctoascendthethroneofFranceandruledfromChinon.HealsohadanofficiallyrecognizedmistressnamedAgnèsSorel. LouisXI 1461–1483 Anauthoritarianruler,reignedfromAmboise,andhadtwoqueens CharlesVIII 1483–1498 Hehadstrangemarriages,includingAnne,afour-year-oldbridewhomarriedtheheirofCharlesVIIIafterhisdeath. LouisXII 1498–1515 MarriedwidowAnnedeBretagneafterdivorcingJeannedeValois.AnneruledfromBloistillherdeathin1514.Louisdiedin1515 FrançoisI 1515–1547 SecondcousinofLouisXII.ActivitycentredatAmboise.Literaryandarchitecturalattainments.InfluenceofRenaissancearchitectureandscientificideas.Secularideasprevailedoverreligiousethos.LeonardodaVinciwaspatronizedwhosettledinAmboisein1516.Capturedinthewarin1525withtheItalians. Reformistera,WarsofReligion 1530–1572 InternecinefightsandkillingsamongtheCatholics,ProtestantsandCatholicMonarchy HenriIII 1574–1589 FledfromLouvre.TookrefugeinToursandeventuallykilledbyamonk HenriIV 1553–1610 FirstKingofBourbonDynasty,AdoptedtheCatholicfaith,DecreedtheEdictofNantes.Saumurwasestablishedasaprominentacademiccentre. LouisXIII 1610– ImportanceofLoirevalleydeclined FrenchRevolution 1789onwards DeclineofmonarchyorruleofKings.ManyChâteauxofLoirerivervalleydestroyedandmanyconvertedintoprisonsandschools.Reignofterrorbetween1793and1794sawkillingofcounterrevolutionariesbysinkingshipscarryingthemforciblyintheLoire. LoireValley[edit] Châteaud'Azay-le-Rideau. Mainarticle:LoireValley TheLoireValley(French:ValléedelaLoire)liesinthemiddlestretchoftheriver,extendsforabout280 km(170 mi)andcomprisesanareaofroughly800 km2(310 sq mi).[1]ItisalsoknownastheGardenofFrance–duetotheabundanceofvineyards,fruitorchards,artichoke,asparagusandcherryfieldswhichlinethebanksoftheriver[45]–andalsoasthe"cradleoftheFrenchlanguage".Itisalsonoteworthyforitsarchitecturalheritage:inpartforitshistorictownssuchasAmboise,Angers,Blois,Chinon,Nantes,Orléans,Saumur,andTours,butinparticularforitscastles,suchastheChâteaud'Amboise,Châteaud'Angers,ChâteaudeChambord,ChâteaudeMontsoreau,Châteaud'Ussé,ChâteaudeVillandryandChenonceau,andalsoforitsmanyculturalmonuments,whichillustratetheidealsoftheRenaissanceandtheAgeoftheEnlightenmentonwesternEuropeanthoughtanddesign. OnDecember2,2000,UNESCOaddedthecentralpartoftheLoirevalley,betweenBouchemaineinAnjouandSully-sur-LoireinLoiret,toitslistofWorldHeritageSites.InchoosingthisareathatincludestheFrenchdépartementsofLoiret,Loir-et-Cher,Indre-et-Loire,andMaine-et-Loire,thecommitteesaidthattheLoireValleyis: "anexceptionalculturallandscape,ofgreatbeauty,comprisedofhistoriccitiesandvillages,greatarchitecturalmonuments–theChâteaux–andlandsthathavebeencultivatedandshapedbycenturiesofinteractionbetweenlocalpopulationsandtheirphysicalenvironment,inparticulartheLoireitself." Architecture[edit] ArchitecturaledificeswerecreatedinLoirevalleyfromthe10thcenturyonwardswiththedefensivefortresslikestructurescalledthe"keeps"or"donjons"builtbetween987and1040byAnjouCountFoulquesNerraofAnjou(theFalcon).However,oneoftheoldestsuchstructuresinFranceistheDonjondeFoulquesNerrabuiltin944.[46] Thisstylewasreplacedbythereligiousarchitecturalstyleinthe12thto14thcenturieswhentheimpregnablechâteaufortresseswerebuiltontopofrockyhills;oneoftheimpressivefortressesofthistypeistheChâteaud'Angers,whichhas17gruesometowers.Thiswasfollowedbyaestheticallybuiltchâteaux(toalsofunctionasresidentialunits),whichsubstitutedthequadrangularlayoutofthekeep.However,theexteriordefensivestructures,intheformofportcullisandmoatssurroundingthethickwallsofthechâteaux'fortswereretained.[47]Therewasfurtherrefinementinthedesignofthechâteauxinthe15thcenturybeforetheBaroquestylecameintoprominencewithdecorativeandelegantlydesignedinteriorsandwhichbecamefashionablefromthe16thtotheendofthe18thcentury.[46] TheBaroquestyleartistswhocreatedsomeoftheexquisitechâteaustructureswere:theParisian,FrançoisMansart(1598–1662)whoseclassicalsymmetricaldesignisseenintheChâteaudeBlois;JacquesBougier(1635)ofBloiswhoseclassicaldesignistheChâteaudeCheverny;GuillaumeBautruremodelledtheChâteaudeSerrant(attheextremewesternendofthevalley).Inthe17thcentury,therewasfeverishpaceinthedesignofchâteauxforintroducingexoticstyles;anotablestructureofthisperiodisthePagodedeChanteloupatAmboise,whichwasbuiltbetween1773and1778.[46] TheNeoclassicalarchitecturalstyle,wasarevivalofClassicalstyleofarchitecture,whichemergedinthemid18thcentury;onesuchnotablestructureistheChâteaudeMenarsbuiltbyJacquesAngeGabriel(1698–1782)whowastheroyalarchitectinthecourtofLouisXV(1715–74).ThisstylewasperpetuatedduringthereignofLouisXVI(1774–92)butwithmorerefinements;onesuchrefinedchâteauseenclosetoAngersistheChâteaudeMontgeoffroy.Furnishingsinsidethechâteauxalsowitnessedchangestosuitthelivingstylesofitsoccupants.[48]Gardens,bothornamentalfountains,footpathsflowerbedsandtendedgrass)andkitchentype(togrowvegetables),alsoaccentuatedtheopulenceofthechâteaux. TheFrenchRevolution(1789)broughtaradicalchangefortheworseinthescenariosforchateaus,asmonarchyendedinFrance.[49] Châteaux[edit] Mainarticle:ChâteauxoftheLoireValley Thechâteaux,numberingmorethanthreehundred,representanationofbuildersstartingwiththenecessarycastlefortificationsinthe10thcenturytothesplendourofthosebuilthalfamillenniumlater.WhentheFrenchkingsbeganconstructingtheirhugechâteauxhere,thenobility,notwantingorevendaringtobefarfromtheseatofpower,followedsuit.Theirpresenceinthelush,fertilevalleybeganattractingtheverybestlandscapedesigners.Today,theseprivatelyownedchâteauxserveashomes,afewopentheirdoorstotouristvisits,whileothersareoperatedashotelsorbedandbreakfasts.ManyhavebeentakenoverbyalocalgovernmentauthorityorthegiantstructureslikethoseatChambordareownedandoperatedbythenationalgovernmentandaremajortouristsites,attractinghundredsofthousandsofvisitorseachyear.SomenotableChâteauxontheLoireincludeBeaufort-MareuilsurCher–Lavoûte-Polignac–Bouthéon–Montrond–Bastied'Urfé–ChâteauféodaldesCornesd'Urfé–LaRoche–ChâteauféodaldeSaint-Maurice-sur-Loire–Saint-Pierre-la-Noaille–Chevenon–PalaisducaldeNevers–Saint-Brisson–Gien–LaBussière–Pontchevron–LaVerrerie(nearAubigny-sur-Nère)–Sully-sur-Loire–Châteauneuf-sur-Loire–Boisgibault–Meung-sur-Loire–Menars–Talcy–ChâteaudelaFerté–Chambord–Blois–Villesavin–Cheverny–Beauregard–Troussay–ChâteaudeChaumont–Amboise–Clos-Lucé–Langeais–Gizeux–LesRéaux–Montsoreau–Montreuil-Bellay–Saint-Loup-sur-Thouet–Saumur–Boumois–Brissac–Montgeoffroy–Plessis-Bourré–ChâteaudesRéaux AmboiseonthebanksoftheLoire ChateaudeLangeais ChâteaudeBloisinteriorfaçadesinGothic,RenaissanceandClassicstyles(fromrighttoleft). ChâteaudeValençay. ChâteaudeMontsoreau Winemaking[edit] Mainarticle:LoireValley(wine) VineyardintheLoireValley SauvignonblancistheprincipalgrapeofSancerreandPouilly-Fumé,foundintheLoireValley. TheLoireValleywineregionincludestheFrenchwineregionssituatedalongtheLoirefromtheMuscadetregionnearthecityofNantesontheAtlanticcoasttotheregionofSancerreandPouilly-FuméjustsoutheastofthecityofOrléansinnorthcentralFrance.InbetweenaretheregionsofAnjou,Saumur,Bourgueil,Chinon,andVouvray.TheLoireValleyitselffollowstheriverthroughtheLoireprovincetotheriver'soriginsintheCévennesbutthemajorityofthewineproductiontakesplaceintheregionsnotedabove. TheLoireValleyhasalonghistoryofwinemakingdatingbacktothe1stcentury.IntheHighMiddleAges,thewinesoftheLoireValleywerethemostesteemedwinesinEnglandandFrance,evenmoreprizedthanthosefromBordeaux.[50]ArchaeologicalevidencesuggestthattheRomansplantedthefirstvineyardsintheLoireValleyduringtheirsettlementofGaulinthe1stcenturyAD.Bythe5thcentury,theflourishingviticultureoftheareawasnotedinapublicationbythepoetSidoniusApollinaris.InhisworkHistoryoftheFranks,BishopGregoryofTourswroteofthefrequentplunderingbytheBretonsofthearea'swinestocks.Bythe11thcenturythewinesofSancerrehadareputationacrossEuropefortheirhighquality.HistoricallythewineriesoftheLoireValleyhavebeensmall,familyownedoperationsthatdoalotofestatebottling.Themid-1990ssawanincreaseinthenumberofnégociantandco-operativetowherenowabouthalfofSancerreandalmost80%ofMuscadetisbottledbyanégociantorco-op.[51] TheLoireriverhasasignificanteffectonthemesoclimateoftheregion,addingthenecessaryextrafewdegreesoftemperaturethatallowsgrapestogrowwhentheareastothenorthandsouthoftheLoireValleyhaveshowntobeunfavourabletoviticulture.InadditiontofindingvineyardsalongtheLoire,severaloftheriver'stributariesarealsowellplanted—includingtheriversAllier,Cher,Indre,Loir,SèvreNantaiseandVienne.[52]Theclimatecanbeverycoolwithspringtimefrostbeingapotentialhazardforthevines.DuringtheharvestmonthsraincancausethegrapestobeharvestedunderripebutcanalsoaidinthedevelopmentofBotrytiscinereafortheregion'sdessertwines.[50] TheLoireValleyhasahighdensityofvineplantingswithanaverageof4,000–5,000vinesperhectare(1,600–2,000peracre).SomeSancerrevineyardshaveasmanyas10,000plantsperhectare.Withmorevinescompetingforthesamelimitedresourcesinthesoil,thedensityisdesignedtocompensatefortheexcessiveyieldsthatsomeofthegrapevarieties,likeCheninblanc,arepronetohave.Inrecenttimes,pruningandcanopymanagementhavestartedtolimityieldsmoreeffectively.[50] TheLoireValleyisoftendividedintothreesections.TheUpperLoireincludestheSauvignonblancdominatedareasofSancerreandPouilly-Fumé.TheMiddleLoireisdominatedbymoreCheninblancandCabernetfrancwinesfoundintheregionsaroundTouraine,Saumur,ChinonandVouvray.TheLowerLoirethatleadstothemouthoftheriver'sentrancetotheAtlanticgoesthroughtheMuscadetregionwhichisdominatedbywinesoftheMelondeBourgognegrape.[53]SpreadoutacrosstheLoireValleyare87appellationundertheAOC,VDQSandVindePayssystems.TherearetwogenericdesignationthatcanbeusedacrossthewholeoftheLoireValley.TheCrémantdeLoirewhichreferstoanysparklingwinemadeaccordingtothetraditionalmethodofChampagne.TheVindePaysduJardindelaFrancereferstoanyvarietallylabelledwine,suchasChardonnay,thatisproducedintheregionoutsideofanAOCdesignation.[52] Theareaincludes87appellationsundertheAppellationd'originecontrôlée(AOC),VinDélimitédeQualitéSuperieure(VDQS)andVindepayssystems.WhilethemajorityofproductioniswhitewinefromtheCheninblanc,SauvignonblancandMelondeBourgognegrapes,thereareredwinesmade(especiallyaroundtheChinonregion)fromCabernetfranc.Inadditiontostillwines,rosé,sparklinganddessertwinesarealsoproduced.WithCrémantproductionthroughouttheLoirevalley,itisthesecondlargestsparklingwineproducerinFranceafterChampagne.[54]Amongthesedifferentwinestyles,Loirewinestendtoexhibitcharacteristicfruitinesswithfresh,crispflavours-especiallyintheiryouth.[52] Art[edit] TheLoirehasinspiredmanypoetsandwriters,including:Charlesd'Orléans,FrançoisRabelais,RenéGuyCadou [fr],ClémentMarot,PierredeRonsard,JoachimduBellay,JeandeLaFontaine,CharlesPéguy,GastonCouté;andpainterssuchas:RaoulDufy,J.M.W.Turner,GustaveCourbet,AugusteRodin,FélixEdouardVallotton,JacquesVillon,Jean-MaxAlbert,CharlesLeduc [fr],EdmondBertreux [fr],andJeanChabot. ScèneoftheLoire,byJ.M.W.Turner. LasourcedelaLoire,byGustaveCourbet. PortraitoftheLoire,byJean-MaxAlbert,1988.MuséedelaLoire,Cosne-sur-Loire. LesRosiers-sur-LoirebyJean-JacquesDelusse [fr],1800 TheLoireatMontsoreau,J.M.W.Turner,1832,ChâteaudeMontsoreau-MuseumofContemporaryArt. Seealso[edit] RiversofFrance PaysdelaLoireregion References[edit] ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuTockner,Klement;Uehlinger,Urs;Robinson,ChristopherT.(2009).RiversofEurope.AcademicPress.p. 183.ISBN 978-0-12-369449-2.Retrieved11April2011. ^abSandre."Fichecoursd'eau-laLoire(----0000)". ^ab"TheLoireatMontjean".RiverDischargeDatabase.CenterforSustainabilityandtheGlobalEnvironment.2010-02-13.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011-09-28.Retrieved2011-06-30. ^abcde"TheLoire".EncyclopædiaBritannicaonline. ^abcNicolaWilliams;VirginieBoone(1May2002).TheLoire.LonelyPlanet.pp. 9–12,14,16–17,19,21–22,24,26,27–36,40–54.ISBN 978-1-86450-358-6.Retrieved13April2011. ^"WelcometotheLoireValley".WesternFranceTouristBoard.Retrieved13April2011. ^ab"TheLoireValley"(PDF).LonelyPlanet.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on15October2012.Retrieved11March2011. ^Montclos,Jean-MariePérousede(1997).ChâteauxoftheLoireValley.Könemann.ISBN 978-3-89508-598-7.Retrieved11April2011. ^Barbour,Philippe(1July2007).RhoneAlpes,2nd.NewHollandPublishers.p. 127.ISBN 978-1-86011-357-4.Retrieved11April2011. ^abcWilliams&Boone,p.33 ^Tockner,Klement;Uehlinger,Urs;Robinson,ChristopherT.(2009)."5.2.1".RiversofEurope.AcademicPress.ISBN 978-0-12-369449-2.Retrieved11April2011. ^ab"Луара(рекавоФранции)".GreatSovietEncyclopedia(inRussian). ^Newscientist.IPCMagazines.1991.p. 46.Retrieved11April2011. ^Edwards-May,David(2010).InlandWaterwaysofFrance.StIves,Cambs.,UK:Imray.pp. 109–111.ISBN 978-1-846230-14-1. ^Fluviacarte,Loire(maritime) ^Fluviacarte,Loire ^Fluviacarte,CanallatéralàlaLoire ^Fluviacarte,CanaldeRoanneàDigoin ^Williams&Boone,p.35-36 ^abBoon,P.J.;Davies,BryanRobert;Petts,GeoffreyE.(2000).Globalperspectivesonriverconservation:science,policy,andpractice.JohnWiley.ISBN 978-0-471-96062-1.Retrieved24April2011. ^IUCNbulletin.InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureandNaturalResources.1989.p. 9.Retrieved24April2011. ^abcdefghijklm"Loire"(PDF).Assets.panda.org,WorldWildlifeFund.Retrieved24April2011. ^abcVisionforwaterandnature:aworldstrategyforconservationandsustainablemanagementofwaterresourcesinthe21stcentury.IUCN.1January2000.p. 22.ISBN 978-2-8317-0575-0.Retrieved24April2011. ^Tourenq,J.;Pomerol,C.(1995)."Miseenévidence,parlaprésenced'augiteduMassifCentral,del'existenced'unepré-Loire-pré-SeinecoulantverslaManche".ComptesRendusdel'AcadémiedesSciences.320:1163–1169. ^Antoine,Pierre;Lautridou,JeanPierre;Laurent,Michel(June2000)."Long-termfluvialarchivesinNWFrance:responseoftheriversSeineandSommetotectonicmovements,climaticvariationsandsea-levelchanges".Geomorphology.33(3–4):183–207.doi:10.1016/s0169-555x(99)00122-1. ^abcdefgWilliams&Boone,p.11 ^abWilliams&Boone,p.12 ^Abaev,V.I.;Bailey,H.W."Alans".EncyclopædiaIranica.Vol. I/8.pp. 801–803. ^abWilliams&Boone,p.14 ^Bradbury,Jim(1February2004).RoutledgeCompaniontoMedievalWarfare.TaylorandFrancis.p. 213.ISBN 978-0-203-64466-9.Retrieved11April2011. ^abcWilliams&Boone,p.16 ^Aa.Vv.(20June2007).ChâteauxoftheLoire.CasaEditriceBonechi.p. 17.ISBN 978-88-476-1840-4.Retrieved11April2011. ^Moffett,Marian;Fazio,MichaelW.;Wodehouse,Lawrence(2003).Aworldhistoryofarchitecture.LaurenceKingPublishing.p. 330.ISBN 978-1-85669-371-4.Retrieved11April2011. ^Jervis,WilliamHenley(23February2010).AHistoryofFrance:FromtheEarliestTimestotheEstablishmentoftheSecondEmpirein1852.BiblioLife.p. 331.ISBN 978-1-145-42193-6.Retrieved11April2011. ^Mellersh,H.E.L.;Williams,Neville(May1999).Chronologyofworldhistory.ABC-CLIO.p. 188.ISBN 978-1-57607-155-7.Retrieved11April2011. ^Finney,PaulCorby(1999).SeeingbeyondtheWord:VisualArtsandtheCalvinistTradition.Wm.B.EerdmansPublishing.p. 181.ISBN 978-0-8028-3860-5.Retrieved11April2011. ^Smith,Judy(November2002).HolidaywalksintheLoireValley.SigmaLeisure.p. 167.ISBN 978-1-85058-772-9.Retrieved11April2011. ^Trout,AndrewP.(1978).Jean-BaptisteColbert.TwaynePublishers.ISBN 978-0-8057-7715-4.Retrieved11April2011. ^Embleton,Clifford;Embleton-Hamann,Christine(1997).GeomorphologicalhazardsofEurope.Elsevier.p. 126.ISBN 978-0-444-88824-2.Retrieved11April2011. ^Braudel,Fernand;Reynolds,Sian(April1992).IdentityofFrance:PeopleandProduction.HarperPerennial.p. 476.ISBN 978-0-06-092142-2.Retrieved11April2011. ^abcMcKnight,Hugh(September2005).CruisingFrenchWaterways.SheridanHouse,Inc.pp. 178–179.ISBN 978-1-57409-210-3.Retrieved11April2011. ^Institutdesétudesrhodaniennes(1971).RevuedegéographiedeLyon.UniversitédeLyon.Retrieved11April2011. ^Liley,John(6March1975).France,thequietway.StanfordMaritime.p. 130.ISBN 978-0-540-07140-1.Retrieved11April2011. ^Mahe,Stephane(17August2022)."France'sriverLoiresetsnewlowsasdroughtdriesupitstributaries".Loireauxence:Reuters.Archivedfromtheoriginalon18August2022.Retrieved20August2022. ^Williams&Boone,p.10 ^abcWilliams&Boone,p.19 ^Williams&Boone,p.17 ^Williams&Boone,pp.22–26 ^Williams&Boone,p.28 ^abcJ.Robinson(ed.)TheOxfordCompaniontoWineThirdEdition,pp.408–410,OxfordUniversityPress2006ISBN 0-19-860990-6 ^MacNeil,K.(2001).TheWineBible.WorkmanPublishing.pp. 259–272.ISBN 1-56305-434-5. ^abcFallis,C.,ed.(2006).TheEncyclopedicAtlasofWine.GlobalBookPublishing.pp. 168–176.ISBN 1-74048-050-3. ^Robinson,J.(2003).JancisRobinson'sWineCourse(3rd ed.).AbbevillePress.pp. 180–184.ISBN 0-7892-0883-0. ^Stevenson,T.(2005).TheSotheby'sWineEncyclopedia.DorlingKindersley.pp. 196–198.ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. Bibliography[edit] Williams,Nicola;Boone,Virginie(1May2002),TheLoire,LonelyPlanet,ISBN 978-1-86450-358-6 Garrett,Martin,TheLoire:aCulturalHistory.2010,SignalBooks.[ISBN missing] PaysdelaLoire,waterwaysguideNo.10,EditionsduBreil.pp8–27,forthenavigablesection(guideinEnglish,FrenchandGerman)[ISBN missing] Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoLoireRiver. RiverLoireguide,places,portsandmooringsontheriverinthenavigablelengthfromtheMainetoSaint-Nazaire,bytheauthorofInlandWaterwaysofFrance,Imray. 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