Origin of language - Wikipedia

The origin of language its relationship with human evolution, and its consequences have been ... when Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection provoked a ... Originoflanguage FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch How,why,when,andwherelanguagemighthaveemerged Thisarticleisabouttheoriginofnaturallanguages.Fortheoriginofprogramminglanguages,seeHistoryofprogramminglanguages. Thisarticlehasmultipleissues.Pleasehelpimproveitordiscusstheseissuesonthetalkpage.(Learnhowandwhentoremovethesetemplatemessages) Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Originoflanguage" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(July2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thisarticle'stoneorstylemaynotreflecttheencyclopedictoneusedonWikipedia.SeeWikipedia'sguidetowritingbetterarticlesforsuggestions.(February2018)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) (Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) PartofaseriesonLinguistics OutlineHistoryIndex Generallinguistics Diachronic Lexicography Morphology Phonology Pragmatics Semantics Syntax Syntax–semanticsinterface Typology Appliedlinguistics Acquisition Anthropological Applied Computational Discourseanalysis Documentation Forensic Historyoflinguistics Neurolinguistics Philosophyoflanguage Phonetics Psycholinguistics Sociolinguistics Textandcorpuslinguistics Translatingandinterpreting Writingsystems Theoreticalframeworks Formalist Glossematics Constituency Dependency Distributionalism Generative Functional Pragueschool Functionaldiscoursegrammar Cognitive Usage-based Systemicfunctional Structuralism Topics Autonomyofsyntax Compositionality Conservative/innovativeforms Descriptivism Etymology Iconicity Internetlinguistics LGBTlinguistics Originoflanguage Orthography Philosophyoflinguistics Prescriptivism Second-languageacquisition Theoryoflanguage Portalvte Theoriginoflanguage(spokenandsigned,aswellaslanguage-relatedtechnologicalsystemssuchaswriting),itsrelationshipwithhumanevolution,anditsconsequenceshavebeensubjectsofstudyforcenturies.Scholarswishingtostudytheoriginsoflanguagemustdrawinferencesfromevidencesuchasthefossilrecord,archaeologicalevidence,contemporarylanguagediversity,studiesoflanguageacquisition,andcomparisonsbetweenhumanlanguageandsystemsofcommunicationexistingamonganimals(particularlyotherprimates).Manyarguethattheoriginsoflanguageprobablyrelatecloselytotheoriginsofmodernhumanbehavior,butthereislittleagreementaboutthefactsandimplicationsofthisconnection. Theshortageofdirect,empiricalevidencehascausedmanyscholarstoregardtheentiretopicasunsuitableforseriousstudy;in1866,theLinguisticSocietyofParisbannedanyexistingorfuturedebatesonthesubject,aprohibitionwhichremainedinfluentialacrossmuchoftheWesternworlduntillateinthetwentiethcentury.[1][2]Varioushypotheseshavebeendevelopedabouthow,why,when,andwherelanguagemighthaveemerged.[3]Still,littlemorehasbeenuniversallyagreedupontoday(asof1996)thanoveracenturyandahalfago,whenCharlesDarwin'stheoryofevolutionbynaturalselectionprovokedasurgeofspeculationonthetopic.[4]Sincetheearly1990s,however,anumberoflinguists,archaeologists,psychologists,anthropologists,andothershaveattemptedtoaddressthisissuewithnew,modernmethods.[5] Contents 1Approaches 2Languageoriginhypotheses 2.1Earlyspeculations 2.2Problemsofreliabilityanddeception 2.2.1The"mothertongues"hypothesis 2.2.2The"obligatoryreciprocalaltruism"hypothesis 2.2.3Thegossipandgroominghypothesis 2.2.4Ritual/speechcoevolution 2.3Toolresiliency,grammarandlanguageproduction 2.4Humanistictheory 2.5Chomsky'ssingle-steptheory 2.6TheRomulusandRemushypothesis 2.7Gesturaltheory 2.8Tool-useassociatedsoundintheevolutionoflanguage 2.9Mirrorneuronsandlanguageorigins 2.10Putting-down-the-babytheory 2.11From-where-to-whattheory 2.12Grammaticalisationtheory 2.13Evolution-progressionmodel 2.14Self-domesticatedapetheory 3Speechandlanguageforcommunication 4Cognitivedevelopmentandlanguage 4.1Theoryofmind 4.2Numberrepresentation 5Linguisticstructures 5.1Lexical-phonologicalprinciple 5.2Pidginsandcreoles 6Evolutionarytimeline 6.1Primatecommunication 6.2Ardipithecusramidus 6.3EarlyHomo 6.4ArchaicHomosapiens 6.4.1Homoheidelbergensis 6.4.2Homoneanderthalensis 6.5Homosapiens 6.6Thedescendedlarynx 6.6.1Thesizeexaggerationhypothesis 6.7Phonemicdiversity 7History 7.1Inreligionandmythology 7.2Historicalexperiments 7.3Historyofresearch 8Seealso 9References 10Furtherreading 11Externallinks Approaches[edit] Theoriginoflanguagecanbesub-dividedaccordingtosomeunderlyingassumptions:[6] "Continuitytheories"buildontheideathatlanguageexhibitssomuchcomplexitythatonecannotimagineitsimplyappearingfromnothinginitsfinalform;thereforeitmusthaveevolvedfromearlierpre-linguisticsystemsamonghumans'primateancestors. "Discontinuitytheories"taketheoppositeapproach—thatlanguage,asauniquetraitwhichcannotbecomparedtoanythingfoundamongnon-humans,musthaveappearedfairlysuddenlyduringthecourseofhumanevolution. Sometheoriesconsiderlanguagemostlyasaninnatefaculty—largelygeneticallyencoded. Othertheoriesregardlanguageasamainlyculturalsystem—learnedthroughsocialinteraction. Amajorityoflinguisticscholarsasof2018[update]favourcontinuity-basedtheories,buttheyvaryinhowtheyhypothesizelanguagedevelopment.Amongthosewhoconsiderlanguageasmostlyinnate,someavoidspeculatingaboutspecificprecursorsinnonhumanprimates,stressingsimplythatthelanguagefacultymusthaveevolvedintheusualgradualway.[7]Othersinthisintellectualcamp—notablyIbUlbæk[6]—holdthatlanguageevolvednotfromprimatecommunicationbutfromprimatecognition,whichissignificantlymorecomplex. Thosewhoconsiderlanguageaslearnedsocially,suchasMichaelTomasello,consideritdevelopingfromthecognitivelycontrolledaspectsofprimatecommunication,thesebeingmostlygesturalasopposedtovocal.[8][9]Wherevocalprecursorsareconcerned,manycontinuitytheoristsenvisagelanguageevolvingfromearlyhumancapacitiesforsong.[10][11][12][13][14] NoamChomsky,aproponentofdiscontinuitytheory,arguesthatasinglechancemutationoccurredinoneindividualintheorderof100,000yearsago,installingthelanguagefaculty(ahypotheticalcomponentofthemid-brain)in"perfect"or"near-perfect"form.[15] Transcendingthecontinuity-versus-discontinuitydivide,somescholarsviewtheemergenceoflanguageastheconsequenceofsomekindofsocialtransformation[16]that,bygeneratingunprecedentedlevelsofpublictrust,liberatedageneticpotentialforlinguisticcreativitythathadpreviouslylaindormant.[17][18][19]"Ritual/speechcoevolutiontheory"exemplifiesthisapproach.[20][21]Scholarsinthisintellectualcamppointtothefactthatevenchimpanzeesandbonoboshavelatentsymboliccapacitiesthattheyrarely—ifever—useinthewild.[22]Objectingtothesuddenmutationidea,theseauthorsarguethatevenifachancemutationweretoinstallalanguageorganinanevolvingbipedalprimate,itwouldbeadaptivelyuselessunderallknownprimatesocialconditions.Averyspecificsocialstructure—onecapableofupholdingunusuallyhighlevelsofpublicaccountabilityandtrust—musthaveevolvedbeforeorconcurrentlywithlanguagetomakerelianceon"cheapsignals"(words)anevolutionarilystablestrategy. Sincetheemergenceoflanguageliessofarbackinhumanprehistory,therelevantdevelopmentshaveleftnodirecthistoricaltraces;neithercancomparableprocessesbeobservedtoday.Despitethis,theemergenceofnewsignlanguagesinmoderntimes—NicaraguanSignLanguage,forexample—maypotentiallyofferinsightsintothedevelopmentalstagesandcreativeprocessesnecessarilyinvolved.[23]Anotherapproachinspectsearlyhumanfossils,lookingfortracesofphysicaladaptationtolanguageuse.[24][25]Insomecases,whentheDNAofextincthumanscanberecovered,thepresenceorabsenceofgenesconsideredtobelanguage-relevant—FOXP2,forexample—mayproveinformative.[26]Anotherapproach,thistimearchaeological,involvesinvokingsymbolicbehavior(suchasrepeatedritualactivity)thatmayleaveanarchaeologicaltrace—suchasminingandmodifyingochrepigmentsforbody-painting—whiledevelopingtheoreticalargumentstojustifyinferencesfromsymbolismingeneraltolanguageinparticular.[27][28][29] Thetimerangefortheevolutionoflanguageoritsanatomicalprerequisitesextends,atleastinprinciple,fromthephylogeneticdivergenceofHomo(2.3to2.4millionyearsago)fromPan(5to6millionyearsago)totheemergenceoffullbehavioralmodernitysome50,000–150,000yearsago.FewdisputethatAustralopithecusprobablylackedvocalcommunicationsignificantlymoresophisticatedthanthatofgreatapesingeneral,[30]butscholarlyopinionsvaryastothedevelopmentssincetheappearanceofHomosome2.5millionyearsago.Somescholarsassumethedevelopmentofprimitivelanguage-likesystems(proto-language)asearlyasHomohabilis,whileothersplacethedevelopmentofsymboliccommunicationonlywithHomoerectus(1.8millionyearsago)orwithHomoheidelbergensis(0.6millionyearsago)andthedevelopmentoflanguageproperwithHomosapiens,currentlyestimatedatlessthan200,000yearsago. Usingstatisticalmethodstoestimatethetimerequiredtoachievethecurrentspreadanddiversityinmodernlanguages,JohannaNichols—alinguistattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley—arguedin1998thatvocallanguagesmusthavebegundiversifyinginthehumanspeciesatleast100,000yearsago.[31]AfurtherstudybyQ.D.Atkinson[11]suggeststhatsuccessivepopulationbottlenecksoccurredashumanAfricanancestorsmigratedtootherareas,leadingtoadecreaseingeneticandphenotypicdiversity.Atkinsonarguesthatthesebottlenecksalsoaffectedcultureandlanguage,suggestingthatthefartherawayaparticularlanguageisfromAfrica,thefewerphonemesitcontains.Bywayofevidence,Atkinsonclaimsthattoday'sAfricanlanguagestendtohaverelativelylargenumbersofphonemes,whereaslanguagesofOceania(thelastregiontobepopulatedbyhumans)haverelativelyfew.RelyingheavilyonAtkinson'swork,asubsequentstudyhasexploredtherateatwhichphonemesdevelopnaturally,comparingthisratetosomeofAfrica'soldestlanguages.Theresultssuggestthatlanguagefirstevolvedaround50,000–150,000yearsago,whichisaroundthetimewhenmodernHomosapiensevolved.[32]Estimatesofthiskindarenotuniversallyaccepted,butjointlyconsideringgenetic,archaeological,palaeontological,andmuchotherevidenceindicatesthatlanguageprobablyemergedsomewhereinsub-SaharanAfricaduringtheMiddleStoneAge,roughlycontemporaneouswiththespeciationofHomosapiens.[33] Languageoriginhypotheses[edit] Earlyspeculations[edit] Icannotdoubtthatlanguageowesitsorigintotheimitationandmodification,aidedbysignsandgestures,ofvariousnaturalsounds,thevoicesofotheranimals,andman'sowninstinctivecries.— CharlesDarwin,1871.TheDescentofMan,andSelectioninRelationtoSex[34]In1861,historicallinguistMaxMüllerpublishedalistofspeculativetheoriesconcerningtheoriginsofspokenlanguage:[35] Bow-wow.Thebow-woworcuckootheory,whichMüllerattributedtotheGermanphilosopherJohannGottfriedHerder,sawearlywordsasimitationsofthecriesofbeastsandbirds. Pooh-pooh.Thepooh-poohtheorysawthefirstwordsasemotionalinterjectionsandexclamationstriggeredbypain,pleasure,surprise,etc. Ding-dong.Müllersuggestedwhathecalledtheding-dongtheory,whichstatesthatallthingshaveavibratingnaturalresonance,echoedsomehowbymaninhisearliestwords. Yo-he-ho.Theyo-he-hotheoryclaimslanguageemergedfromcollectiverhythmiclabor,theattempttosynchronizemusculareffortresultinginsoundssuchasheavealternatingwithsoundssuchasho. Ta-ta.ThisdidnotfeatureinMaxMüller'slist,havingbeenproposedin1930bySirRichardPaget.[36]Accordingtotheta-tatheory,humansmadetheearliestwordsbytonguemovementsthatmimickedmanualgestures,renderingthemaudible. Mostscholarstodayconsiderallsuchtheoriesnotsomuchwrong—theyoccasionallyofferperipheralinsights—asnaïveandirrelevant.[37][38]Theproblemwiththesetheoriesisthattheyaresonarrowlymechanistic.[citationneeded]Theyassumethatoncehumanancestorshaddiscoveredtheappropriateingeniousmechanismforlinkingsoundswithmeanings,languageautomaticallyevolvedandchanged. MedievalMuslimscholarsalsodevelopedtheoriesontheoriginoflanguage.[39][40]Theirtheorieswereoffivegeneraltypes:[41] Naturalist:Thereisanaturalrelationbetweenexpressionsandthethingstheysignify.Languagethusemergedfromanaturalhumaninclinationtoimitatethesoundsofnature. Conventionalist:Languageisasocialconvention.Thenamesofthingsarearbitraryinventionsofhumans. Revelationist:LanguagewasgiftedtohumansbyGod,anditwasthusGod—andnothumans—whonamedeverything. Revelationist-Conventionalist:Godrevealedtohumansacorebaseoflanguage—enablinghumanstocommunicatewitheachother—andthenhumansinventedtherestoflanguage. Non-Committal:Theviewthatconventionalistandrevelationisttheoriesareequallyplausible. Problemsofreliabilityanddeception[edit] Furtherinformation:Signallingtheory Fromtheperspectiveofsignallingtheory,themainobstacletotheevolutionoflanguage-likecommunicationinnatureisnotamechanisticone.Rather,itisthefactthatsymbols—arbitraryassociationsofsoundsorotherperceptibleformswithcorrespondingmeanings—areunreliableandmaywellbefalse.[42][43]Asthesayinggoes,"wordsarecheap".[44]TheproblemofreliabilitywasnotrecognizedatallbyDarwin,Müllerortheotherearlyevolutionarytheorists. Animalvocalsignalsare,forthemostpart,intrinsicallyreliable.Whenacatpurrs,thesignalconstitutesdirectevidenceoftheanimal'scontentedstate.Thesignalistrusted,notbecausethecatisinclinedtobehonest,butbecauseitjustcannotfakethatsound.[why?]Primatevocalcallsmaybeslightlymoremanipulable,buttheyremainreliableforthesamereason—becausetheyarehardtofake.[45]Primatesocialintelligenceis"Machiavellian"—self-servingandunconstrainedbymoralscruples.Monkeysandapesoftenattempttodeceiveeachother,whileatthesametimeremainingconstantlyonguardagainstfallingvictimtodeceptionthemselves.[46][47]Paradoxically,itistheorizedthatprimates'resistancetodeceptioniswhatblockstheevolutionoftheirsignallingsystemsalonglanguage-likelines.Languageisruledoutbecausethebestwaytoguardagainstbeingdeceivedistoignoreallsignalsexceptthosethatareinstantlyverifiable.Wordsautomaticallyfailthistest.[20] Wordsareeasytofake.Shouldtheyturnouttobelies,listenerswilladaptbyignoringtheminfavorofhard-to-fakeindicesorcues.Forlanguagetowork,then,listenersmustbeconfidentthatthosewithwhomtheyareonspeakingtermsaregenerallylikelytobehonest.[48]Apeculiarfeatureoflanguageis"displacedreference",whichmeansreferencetotopicsoutsidethecurrentlyperceptiblesituation.Thispropertypreventsutterancesfrombeingcorroboratedintheimmediate"here"and"now".Forthisreason,languagepresupposesrelativelyhighlevelsofmutualtrustinordertobecomeestablishedovertimeasanevolutionarilystablestrategy.Thisstabilityisbornofalongstandingmutualtrustandiswhatgrantslanguageitsauthority.Atheoryoftheoriginsoflanguagemustthereforeexplainwhyhumanscouldbegintrustingcheapsignalsinwaysthatotheranimalsapparentlycannot(seesignallingtheory). The"mothertongues"hypothesis[edit] The"mothertongues"hypothesiswasproposedin2004asapossiblesolutiontothisproblem.[49]W.TecumsehFitchsuggestedthattheDarwinianprincipleof"kinselection"[50]—theconvergenceofgeneticinterestsbetweenrelatives—mightbepartoftheanswer.Fitchsuggeststhatlanguageswereoriginally"mothertongues".Iflanguageevolvedinitiallyforcommunicationbetweenmothersandtheirownbiologicaloffspring,extendinglatertoincludeadultrelativesaswell,theinterestsofspeakersandlistenerswouldhavetendedtocoincide.Fitcharguesthatsharedgeneticinterestswouldhaveledtosufficienttrustandcooperationforintrinsicallyunreliablesignals—words—tobecomeacceptedastrustworthyandsobeginevolvingforthefirsttime.[51] Criticsofthistheorypointoutthatkinselectionisnotuniquetohumans.[52]SoevenifoneacceptsFitch'sinitialpremises,theextensionoftheposited"mothertongue"networksfromcloserelativestomoredistantrelativesremainsunexplained.[52]Fitchargues,however,thattheextendedperiodofphysicalimmaturityofhumaninfantsandthepostnatalgrowthofthehumanbraingivethehuman-infantrelationshipadifferentandmoreextendedperiodofintergenerationaldependencythanthatfoundinanyotherspecies.[49] The"obligatoryreciprocalaltruism"hypothesis[edit] IbUlbæk[6]invokesanotherstandardDarwinianprinciple—"reciprocalaltruism"[53]—toexplaintheunusuallyhighlevelsofintentionalhonestynecessaryforlanguagetoevolve."Reciprocalaltruism"canbeexpressedastheprinciplethatifyouscratchmyback,I'llscratchyours.Inlinguisticterms,itwouldmeanthatifyouspeaktruthfullytome,I'llspeaktruthfullytoyou.OrdinaryDarwinianreciprocalaltruism,Ulbækpointsout,isarelationshipestablishedbetweenfrequentlyinteractingindividuals.Forlanguagetoprevailacrossanentirecommunity,however,thenecessaryreciprocitywouldhaveneededtobeenforceduniversallyinsteadofbeinglefttoindividualchoice.Ulbækconcludesthatforlanguagetoevolve,societyasawholemusthavebeensubjecttomoralregulation. Criticspointoutthatthistheoryfailstoexplainwhen,how,whyorbywhom"obligatoryreciprocalaltruism"couldpossiblyhavebeenenforced.[21]Variousproposalshavebeenofferedtoremedythisdefect.[21]Afurthercriticismisthatlanguagedoesnotworkonthebasisofreciprocalaltruismanyway.Humansinconversationalgroupsdonotwithholdinformationtoallexceptlistenerslikelytooffervaluableinformationinreturn.Onthecontrary,theyseemtowanttoadvertisetotheworldtheiraccesstosociallyrelevantinformation,broadcastingthatinformationwithoutexpectationofreciprocitytoanyonewhowilllisten.[54] Thegossipandgroominghypothesis[edit] Gossip,accordingtoRobinDunbarinhisbookGrooming,GossipandtheEvolutionofLanguage,doesforgroup-livinghumanswhatmanualgroomingdoesforotherprimates—itallowsindividualstoservicetheirrelationshipsandsomaintaintheiralliancesonthebasisoftheprinciple:ifyouscratchmyback,I'llscratchyours.Dunbararguesthatashumansbeganlivinginincreasinglylargersocialgroups,thetaskofmanuallygroomingallone'sfriendsandacquaintancesbecamesotime-consumingastobeunaffordable.[55]Inresponsetothisproblem,humansdeveloped"acheapandultra-efficientformofgrooming"—vocalgrooming.Tokeepallieshappy,onenowneedsonlyto"groom"themwithlow-costvocalsounds,servicingmultiplealliessimultaneouslywhilekeepingbothhandsfreeforothertasks.Vocalgroomingthenevolvedgraduallyintovocallanguage—initiallyintheformof"gossip".[55]Dunbar'shypothesisseemstobesupportedbythefactthatthestructureoflanguageshowsadaptationstothefunctionofnarrationingeneral.[56] Criticsofthistheorypointoutthattheveryefficiencyof"vocalgrooming"—thefactthatwordsaresocheap—wouldhaveundermineditscapacitytosignalcommitmentofthekindconveyedbytime-consumingandcostlymanualgrooming.[57]Afurthercriticismisthatthetheorydoesnothingtoexplainthecrucialtransitionfromvocalgrooming—theproductionofpleasingbutmeaninglesssounds—tothecognitivecomplexitiesofsyntacticalspeech. Ritual/speechcoevolution[edit] Theritual/speechcoevolutiontheorywasoriginallyproposedbysocialanthropologistRoyRappaport[17]beforebeingelaboratedbyanthropologistssuchasChrisKnight,[20]JeromeLewis,[58]NickEnfield,[59]CamillaPower[48]andIanWatts.[29]CognitivescientistandroboticsengineerLucSteels[60]isanotherprominentsupporterofthisgeneralapproach,asisbiologicalanthropologistandneuroscientistTerrenceDeacon.[61] Thesescholarsarguethattherecanbenosuchthingasa"theoryoftheoriginsoflanguage".Thisisbecauselanguageisnotaseparateadaptationbutaninternalaspectofsomethingmuchwider—namely,humansymboliccultureasawhole.[19]Attemptstoexplainlanguageindependentlyofthiswidercontexthavefailed,saythesescientists,becausetheyareaddressingaproblemwithnosolution.Languagewouldnotworkoutsideaspecificarrayofsocialmechanismsandinstitutions.Forexample,itwouldnotworkforanonhumanapecommunicatingwithothersinthewild.Noteventhecleverestnonhumanapecouldmakelanguageworkundersuchconditions. Lieandalternative,inherentinlanguage...poseproblemstoanysocietywhosestructureisfoundedonlanguage,whichistosayallhumansocieties.IhavethereforearguedthatiftherearetobewordsatallitisnecessarytoestablishTheWord,andthatTheWordisestablishedbytheinvarianceofliturgy.— RoyRappaport[62] Advocatesofthisschoolofthoughtpointoutthatwordsarecheap.Shouldanespeciallyclevernonhumanape,orevenagroupofarticulatenonhumanapes,trytousewordsinthewild,theywouldcarrynoconviction.Theprimatevocalizationsthatdocarryconviction—thosetheyactuallyuse—areunlikewords,inthattheyareemotionallyexpressive,intrinsicallymeaningful,andreliablebecausetheyarerelativelycostlyandhardtofake. Languageconsistsofcontrastswhosecostisessentiallyzero.Aspuresocialconventions,signalsofthiskindcannotevolveinaDarwiniansocialworld—theyareatheoreticalimpossibility.[42]Beingintrinsicallyunreliable,languageworksonlyifonecanbuildupareputationfortrustworthinesswithinacertainkindofsociety—namely,onewheresymbolicculturalfacts(sometimescalled"institutionalfacts")canbeestablishedandmaintainedthroughcollectivesocialendorsement.[63]Inanyhunter-gatherersociety,thebasicmechanismforestablishingtrustinsymbolicculturalfactsiscollectiveritual.[64]Therefore,thetaskfacingresearchersintotheoriginsoflanguageismoremultidisciplinarythanisusuallysupposed.Itinvolvesaddressingtheevolutionaryemergenceofhumansymboliccultureasawhole,withlanguageanimportantbutsubsidiarycomponent. CriticsofthetheoryincludeNoamChomsky,whotermsitthe"non-existence"hypothesis—adenialoftheveryexistenceoflanguageasanobjectofstudyfornaturalscience.[65]Chomsky'sowntheoryisthatlanguageemergedinaninstantandinperfectform,[66]promptinghiscriticsinturn,toretortthatonlysomethingthatdoesnotexist—atheoreticalconstructorconvenientscientificfiction—couldpossiblyemergeinsuchamiraculousway.[18]Thecontroversyremainsunresolved. Toolresiliency,grammarandlanguageproduction[edit] WhileitispossibletoimitatethemakingoftoolslikethosemadebyearlyHomoundercircumstancesofdemonstration,researchonprimatetoolculturesshowthatnon-verbalculturesarevulnerabletoenvironmentalchange.Inparticular,iftheenvironmentinwhichaskillcanbeuseddisappearsforalongerperiodoftimethananindividualape'sorearlyhuman'slifespan,theskillwillbelostifthecultureisimitativeandnon-verbal.Chimpanzees,macaquesandcapuchinmonkeysareallknowntolosetooltechniquesundersuchcircumstances.ResearchersonprimateculturevulnerabilitythereforearguethatsinceearlyHomospeciesasfarbackasHomohabilisretainedtheirtoolculturesdespitemanyclimatechangecyclesatthetimescalesofcenturiestomillenniaeach,thesespecieshadsufficientlydevelopedlanguageabilitiestoverballydescribecompleteprocedures,andthereforegrammarandnotonlytwo-word"proto-language".[67][68] ThetheorythatearlyHomospecieshadsufficientlydevelopedbrainsforgrammarisalsosupportedbyresearcherswhostudybraindevelopmentinchildren,notingthatgrammarisdevelopedwhileconnectionsacrossthebrainarestillsignificantlylowerthanadultlevel.TheseresearchersarguethattheseloweredsystemrequirementsforgrammaticallanguagemakeitplausiblethatthegenusHomohadgrammaratconnectionlevelsinthebrainthatweresignificantlylowerthanthoseofHomosapiensandthatmorerecentstepsintheevolutionofthehumanbrainwerenotaboutlanguage.[69][70] AcheuleantoolusebeganduringtheLowerPaleolithicapproximately1.75millionyearsago.StudiesfocusingonthelateralizationofAcheuleantoolproductionandlanguageproductionhavenotedsimilarareasofbloodflowwhenengagingintheseactivitiesseparately;thistheorysuggeststhatthebrainfunctionsneededfortheproductionoftoolsacrossgenerationsisconsistentwiththebrainsystemsrequiredforproducinglanguage.ResearchersusedfunctionaltranscranialDopplerultrasonography(fTDC)andhadparticipantsperformactivitiesrelatedtothecreationoftoolsusingthesamemethodsduringtheLowerPaleolithicaswellasataskdesignedspecificallyforwordgeneration.[71]ThepurposeofthistestwastofocusontheplanningaspectofAcheuleantoolmakingandcuedwordgenerationinlanguage(anexampleofcuedwordgenerationwouldbesomeonegivingyouarandomletterandthenyoulistallwordsbeginningwiththatletterthatyoucanthinkof).Theoriesoflanguagedevelopingalongsidetoolusehasbeentheorizedbymultipleindividuals,[72][73][74]howeveruntilrecentlytherehasbeenlittleempiricaldatatosupportthesehypotheses.FocusingontheresultsofthestudyperformedbyUominietal.evidencefortheusageofthesamebrainareashasbeenfoundwhenlookingatcuedwordgenerationandAchueleantooluse.Therelationshipbetweentooluseandlanguageproductionisfoundinworkingandplanningmemoryrespectivelyandwasfoundtobesimilaracrossavarietyofparticipantsfurtheringevidencethattheseareasofthebrainareshared.[71]ThisevidencelendscredibilitytothetheorythatlanguagedevelopedalongsidetooluseintheLowerPaleolithic. Humanistictheory[edit] Thehumanistictraditionconsiderslanguageasahumaninvention.RenaissancephilosopherAntoineArnauldgaveadetaileddescriptionofhisideaoftheoriginoflanguageinPort-RoyalGrammar.AccordingtoArnauld,peoplearesocialandrationalbynature,andthisurgedthemtocreatelanguageasameanstocommunicatetheirideastoothers.Languageconstructionwouldhaveoccurredthroughaslowandgradualprocess.[75]Inlatertheory,especiallyinfunctionallinguistics,theprimacyofcommunicationisemphasisedoverpsychologicalneeds.[76] Theexactwaylanguageevolvedishowevernotconsideredasvitaltothestudyoflanguages.StructurallinguistFerdinanddeSaussureabandonedevolutionarylinguisticsafterhavingcometothefirmconclusionthatitwouldnotbeabletoprovideanyfurtherrevolutionaryinsightafterthecompletionofthemajorworksinhistoricallinguisticsbytheendofthe19thcentury.SaussurewasparticularlyscepticaloftheattemptsofAugustSchleicherandotherDarwinianlinguiststoaccessprehistoricallanguagesthroughseriesofreconstructionsofproto-languages.[77] Evolutionaryresearchhadmanyothercritics,too.TheParislinguisticsocietyfamouslybannedthetopicoflanguageevolutionin1866becauseitwasconsideredaslackingscientificproof.[78]Aroundthesametime,MaxMüllerridiculedpopularaccountstoexplainlanguageorigin.Inhisclassifications,the"bow-wowtheory"isthetypeofexplanationthatconsiderslanguagesashavingevolvedasanimitationofnaturalsounds.The"pooh-poohtheory"holdsthatspeechoriginatedfromspontaneoushumancriesandexclamations;the"yo-he-hotheory"suggeststhatlanguagedevelopedfromgruntsandgaspsevokedbyphysicalexertion;whilethe"sing-songtheory"claimsthatspeecharosefromprimitiveritualchants.[79] Saussure'ssolutiontotheproblemoflanguageevolutioninvolvesdividingtheoreticallinguisticsintwo.Evolutionaryandhistoricallinguisticsarerenamedasdiachroniclinguistics.Itisthestudyoflanguagechange,butithasonlylimitedexplanatorypowerduetotheinadequacyofallofthereliableresearchmaterialthatcouldeverbemadeavailable.Synchroniclinguistics,incontrast,aimstowidenscientists'understandingoflanguagethroughastudyofagivencontemporaryorhistoricallanguagestageasasysteminitsownright.[80] AlthoughSaussurepaidmuchfocustodiachroniclinguistics,laterstructuralistswhoequatedstructuralismwiththesynchronicanalysisweresometimescriticisedofahistoricism.AccordingtostructuralanthropologistClaudeLévi-Strauss,languageandmeaning—inoppositionto"knowledge,whichdevelopsslowlyandprogressively"—musthaveappearedinaninstant.[81] Structuralism,asfirstintroducedtosociologybyÉmileDurkheim,isnonethelessatypeofhumanisticevolutionarytheorywhichexplainsdiversificationasnecessitatedbygrowingcomplexity.[82]TherewasashiftoffocustofunctionalexplanationafterSaussure'sdeath.FunctionalstructuralistsincludingthePragueCirclelinguistsandAndréMartinetexplainedthegrowthandmaintenanceofstructuresasbeingnecessitatedbytheirfunctions.[76]Forexample,noveltechnologiesmakeitnecessaryforpeopletoinventnewwords,butthesemaylosetheirfunctionandbeforgottenasthetechnologiesareeventuallyreplacedbymoremodernones. Chomsky'ssingle-steptheory[edit] AccordingtoNoamChomsky'ssingle-mutationtheory,theemergenceoflanguageresembledtheformationofacrystal;withdigitalinfinityastheseedcrystalinasuper-saturatedprimatebrain,onthevergeofblossomingintothehumanmind,byphysicallaw,onceevolutionaddedasinglesmallbutcrucialkeystone.[83][66]Thus,inthistheory,languageappearedrathersuddenlywithinthehistoryofhumanevolution.Chomsky,writingwithcomputationallinguistandcomputerscientistRobertC. Berwick,suggeststhatthisscenarioiscompletelycompatiblewithmodernbiology.Theynotethat"noneoftherecentaccountsofhumanlanguageevolutionseemtohavecompletelygraspedtheshiftfromconventionalDarwinismtoitsfullystochasticmodernversion—specifically,thattherearestochasticeffectsnotonlyduetosamplinglikedirectionlessdrift,butalsoduetodirectedstochasticvariationinfitness,migration,andheritability—indeed,allthe"forces"thataffectindividualorgenefrequencies ...Allthiscanaffectevolutionaryoutcomes—outcomesthatasfaraswecanmakeoutarenotbroughtoutinrecentbooksontheevolutionoflanguage,yetwouldariseimmediatelyinthecaseofanynewgeneticorindividualinnovation,preciselythekindofscenariolikelytobeinplaywhentalkingaboutlanguage'semergence." CitingevolutionarygeneticistSvantePääbo,theyconcurthatasubstantialdifferencemusthaveoccurredtodifferentiateHomosapiensfromNeanderthalsto"prompttherelentlessspreadofourspecies,whohadnevercrossedopenwater,upandoutofAfricaandthenonacrosstheentireplanetinjustafewtensofthousandsofyears. ...Whatwedonotseeisanykindof'gradualism'innewtooltechnologiesorinnovationslikefire,shelters,orfigurativeart."BerwickandChomskythereforesuggestlanguageemergedapproximatelybetween200,000yearsagoand60,000yearsago(betweentheappearanceofthefirstanatomicallymodernhumansinsouthernAfricaandthelastexodusfromAfricarespectively)."Thatleavesuswithabout130,000years,orapproximately5,000–6,000generationsoftimeforevolutionarychange.Thisisnot'overnightinonegeneration'assomehave(incorrectly)inferred—butneitherisitonthescaleofgeologicaleons.It'stimeenough—withintheballparkforwhatNilssonandPelger(1994)estimatedasthetimerequiredforthefullevolutionofavertebrateeyefromasinglecell,evenwithouttheinvocationofany'evo-devo'effects."[84] Thesingle-mutationtheoryoflanguageevolutionhasbeendirectlyquestionedondifferentgrounds.Aformalanalysisoftheprobabilityofsuchamutationtakingplaceandgoingtofixationinthespecieshasconcludedthatsuchascenarioisunlikely,withmultiplemutationswithmoremoderatefitnesseffectsbeingmoreprobable.[85]AnothercriticismhasquestionedthelogicoftheargumentforsinglemutationandputsforwardthatfromtheformalsimplicityofMerge,thecapacityBerwickandChomskydeemthecorepropertyofhumanlanguagethatemergedsuddenly,onecannotderivethe(numberof)evolutionarystepsthatledtoit.[86] TheRomulusandRemushypothesis[edit] Seealso:Recursion§ Inlanguage,andPrefrontalsynthesis TheRomulusandRemushypothesis,proposedbyneuroscientistAndreyVyshedskiy,seekstoaddressthequestionastowhythemodernspeechapparatusoriginatedover500,000yearsbeforetheearliestsignsofmodernhumanimagination.Thishypothesisproposesthatthereweretwophasesthatledtomodernrecursivelanguage.Thephenomenonofrecursionoccursacrossmultiplelinguisticdomains,arguablymostprominentlyinsyntaxandmorphology.Thus,bynestingastructuresuchasasentenceorawordwithinthemselves,itenablesthegenerationofpotentially(countably)infinitenewvariationsofthatstructure.Forexample,thebasesentence[Peterlikesapples.]canbenestedinirrealisclausestoproduce[[Marysaid[Peterlikesapples.]],[Paulbelieved[Marysaid[Peterlikesapples.]]]andsoforth.[87] Thefirstphaseincludestheslowdevelopmentofnon-recursivelanguagewithalargevocabularyalongwiththemodernspeechapparatus,whichincludeschangestothehyoidbone,increasedvoluntarycontrolofthemusclesofthediaphragm,theevolutionoftheFOXP2gene,aswellasotherchangesby600,000 yearsago.[88]Then,thesecondphasewasarapidChomskiansinglestep,consistingofthreedistincteventsthathappenedinquicksuccessionaround70,000 yearsagoandallowedtheshiftfromnon-recursivetorecursivelanguageinearlyhominins. Ageneticmutationthatsloweddowntheprefrontalsynthesis(PFS)criticalperiodofatleasttwochildrenthatlivedtogether. Thisallowedthesechildrentocreaterecursiveelementsoflanguagesuchasspatialprepositions. Thenthismergedwiththeirparents'non-recursivelanguagetocreaterecursivelanguage.[89] Itisnotenoughforchildrentohaveamodernprefrontalcortex(PFC)toallowthedevelopmentofPFS;thechildrenmustalsobementallystimulatedandhaverecursiveelementsalreadyintheirlanguagetoacquirePFS.Sincetheirparentswouldnothaveinventedtheseelementsyet,thechildrenwouldhavehadtodoitthemselves,whichisacommonoccurrenceamongyoungchildrenthatlivetogether,inaprocesscalledcryptophasia.[90]ThismeansthatdelayedPFCdevelopmentwouldhaveallowedmoretimetoacquirePFSanddeveloprecursiveelements. DelayedPFCdevelopmentalsocomeswithnegativeconsequences,suchasalongerperiodofrelianceonone'sparentstosurviveandlowersurvivalrates.Formodernlanguagetohaveoccurred,PFCdelayhadtohaveanimmensesurvivalbenefitinlaterlife,suchasPFSability.ThissuggeststhatthemutationthatcausedPFCdelayandthedevelopmentofrecursivelanguageandPFSoccurredsimultaneously,whichlinesupwithevidenceofageneticbottleneckaround70,000 yearsago.[91]ThiscouldhavebeentheresultofafewindividualswhodevelopedPFSandrecursivelanguagewhichgavethemsignificantcompetitiveadvantageoverallotherhumansatthetime.[89] Gesturaltheory[edit] Thegesturaltheorystatesthathumanlanguagedevelopedfromgesturesthatwereusedforsimplecommunication. Twotypesofevidencesupportthistheory. Gesturallanguageandvocallanguagedependonsimilarneuralsystems.Theregionsonthecortexthatareresponsibleformouthandhandmovementsbordereachother. Nonhumanprimatescanusegesturesorsymbolsforatleastprimitivecommunication,andsomeoftheirgesturesresemblethoseofhumans,suchasthe"beggingposture",withthehandsstretchedout,whichhumanssharewithchimpanzees.[92][93] Researchhasfoundstrongsupportfortheideathatverballanguageandsignlanguagedependonsimilarneuralstructures.Patientswhousedsignlanguage,andwhosufferedfromaleft-hemispherelesion,showedthesamedisorderswiththeirsignlanguageasvocalpatientsdidwiththeirorallanguage.[94]Otherresearchersfoundthatthesameleft-hemispherebrainregionswereactiveduringsignlanguageasduringtheuseofvocalorwrittenlanguage.[95] Primategestureisatleastpartiallygenetic:differentnonhumanapeswillperformgesturescharacteristicoftheirspecies,eveniftheyhaveneverseenanotherapeperformthatgesture.Forexample,gorillasbeattheirbreasts.Thisshowsthatgesturesareanintrinsicandimportantpartofprimatecommunication,whichsupportstheideathatlanguageevolvedfromgesture.[96] Furtherevidencesuggeststhatgestureandlanguagearelinked.Inhumans,manuallygesturinghasaneffectonconcurrentvocalizations,thuscreatingcertainnaturalvocalassociationsofmanualefforts.Chimpanzeesmovetheirmouthswhenperformingfinemotortasks.Thesemechanismsmayhaveplayedanevolutionaryroleinenablingthedevelopmentofintentionalvocalcommunicationasasupplementtogesturalcommunication.Voicemodulationcouldhavebeenpromptedbypreexistingmanualactions.[96] Frominfancy,gesturesbothsupplementandpredictspeech.[97][98]Thisaddressestheideathatgesturesquicklychangeinhumansfromasolemeansofcommunication(fromaveryyoungage)toasupplementalandpredictivebehaviorthatisuseddespitetheabilitytocommunicateverbally.Thistooservesasaparalleltotheideathatgesturesdevelopedfirstandlanguagesubsequentlybuiltuponit. Twopossiblescenarioshavebeenproposedforthedevelopmentoflanguage,[99]oneofwhichsupportsthegesturaltheory: Languagedevelopedfromthecallsofhumanancestors. Languagewasderivedfromgesture. Thefirstperspectivethatlanguageevolvedfromthecallsofhumanancestorsseemslogicalbecausebothhumansandanimalsmakesoundsorcries.Oneevolutionaryreasontorefutethisisthat,anatomically,thecentrethatcontrolscallsinmonkeysandotheranimalsislocatedinacompletelydifferentpartofthebrainthaninhumans.Inmonkeys,thiscentreislocatedinthedepthsofthebrainrelatedtoemotions.Inthehumansystem,itislocatedinanareaunrelatedtoemotion.Humanscancommunicatesimplytocommunicate—withoutemotions.So,anatomically,thisscenariodoesnotwork.[99]Thissuggeststhatlanguagewasderivedfromgesture[100](humanscommunicatedbygesturefirstandsoundwasattachedlater). Theimportantquestionforgesturaltheoriesiswhytherewasashifttovocalization.Variousexplanationshavebeenproposed: Humanancestorsstartedtousemoreandmoretools,meaningthattheirhandswereoccupiedandcouldnolongerbeusedforgesturing.[101] Manualgesturingrequiresthatspeakersandlistenersbevisibletooneanother.Inmanysituations,theymightneedtocommunicate,evenwithoutvisualcontact—forexampleafternightfallorwhenfoliageobstructsvisibility. Acompositehypothesisholdsthatearlylanguagetooktheformofpartgesturalandpartvocalmimesis(imitative'song-and-dance'),combiningmodalitiesbecauseallsignals(likethoseofnonhumanapesandmonkeys)stillneededtobecostlyinordertobeintrinsicallyconvincing.Inthatevent,eachmulti-mediadisplaywouldhaveneedednotjusttodisambiguateanintendedmeaningbutalsotoinspireconfidenceinthesignal'sreliability.Thesuggestionisthatonlyoncecommunity-widecontractualunderstandingshadcomeintoforce[102]couldtrustincommunicativeintentionsbeautomaticallyassumed,atlastallowingHomosapienstoshifttoamoreefficientdefaultformat.Sincevocaldistinctivefeatures(soundcontrasts)areidealforthispurpose,itwasonlyatthispoint—whenintrinsicallypersuasivebody-languagewasnolongerrequiredtoconveyeachmessage—thatthedecisiveshiftfrommanualgesturetothecurrentprimaryrelianceonspokenlanguageoccurred.[18][20][103] Acomparablehypothesisstatesthatin'articulate'language,gestureandvocalisationareintrinsicallylinked,aslanguageevolvedfromequallyintrinsicallylinkeddanceandsong.[14] Humansstillusemanualandfacialgestureswhentheyspeak,especiallywhenpeoplemeetwhohavenolanguageincommon.[104]Therearealsoagreatnumberofsignlanguagesstillinexistence,commonlyassociatedwithdeafcommunities.Thesesignlanguagesareequalincomplexity,sophistication,andexpressivepower,toanyorallanguage.[105]Thecognitivefunctionsaresimilarandthepartsofthebrainusedaresimilar.Themaindifferenceisthatthe"phonemes"areproducedontheoutsideofthebody,articulatedwithhands,body,andfacialexpression,ratherthaninsidethebodyarticulatedwithtongue,teeth,lips,andbreathing.[106](Comparethemotortheoryofspeechperception.) Criticsofgesturaltheorynotethatitisdifficulttonameseriousreasonswhytheinitialpitch-basedvocalcommunication(whichispresentinprimates)wouldbeabandonedinfavorofthemuchlesseffectivenon-vocal,gesturalcommunication.[107]However,MichaelCorballishaspointedoutthatitissupposedthatprimatevocalcommunication(suchasalarmcalls)cannotbecontrolledconsciously,unlikehandmovement,andthusitisnotcredibleasprecursortohumanlanguage;primatevocalizationisratherhomologoustoandcontinuedininvoluntaryreflexes(connectedwithbasichumanemotions)suchasscreamsorlaughter(thefactthatthesecanbefakeddoesnotdisprovethefactthatgenuineinvoluntaryresponsestofearorsurpriseexist).[100]Also,gestureisnotgenerallylesseffective,anddependingonthesituationcanevenbeadvantageous,forexampleinaloudenvironmentorwhereitisimportanttobesilent,suchasonahunt.Otherchallengestothe"gesture-first"theoryhavebeenpresentedbyresearchersinpsycholinguistics,includingDavidMcNeill.[108] Tool-useassociatedsoundintheevolutionoflanguage[edit] Proponentsofthemotortheoryoflanguageevolutionhaveprimarilyfocusedonthevisualdomainandcommunicationthroughobservationofmovements.TheTool-usesoundhypothesissuggeststhattheproductionandperceptionofsoundalsocontributedsubstantially,particularlyincidentalsoundoflocomotion(ISOL)andtool-usesound(TUS).[109]HumanbipedalismresultedinrhythmicandmorepredictableISOL.Thatmayhavestimulatedtheevolutionofmusicalabilities,auditoryworkingmemory,andabilitiestoproducecomplexvocalizations,andtomimicnaturalsounds.[110]Sincethehumanbrainproficientlyextractsinformationaboutobjectsandeventsfromthesoundstheyproduce,TUS,andmimicryofTUS,mighthaveachievedaniconicfunction.Theprevalenceofsoundsymbolisminmanyextantlanguagessupportsthisidea.Self-producedTUSactivatesmultimodalbrainprocessing(motorneurons,hearing,proprioception,touch,vision),andTUSstimulatesprimateaudiovisualmirrorneurons,whichislikelytostimulatethedevelopmentofassociationchains.Tooluseandauditorygesturesinvolvemotor-processingoftheforelimbs,whichisassociatedwiththeevolutionofvertebratevocalcommunication.Theproduction,perception,andmimicryofTUSmayhaveresultedinalimitednumberofvocalizationsorprotowordsthatwereassociatedwithtooluse.[109]Anewwaytocommunicateabouttools,especiallywhenoutofsight,wouldhavehadselectiveadvantage.Agradualchangeinacousticproperties,meaning,orbothcouldhaveresultedinarbitrarinessandanexpandedrepertoireofwords.HumanshavebeenincreasinglyexposedtoTUSovermillionsofyears,coincidingwiththeperiodduringwhichspokenlanguageevolved. Mirrorneuronsandlanguageorigins[edit] Inhumans,functionalMRIstudieshavereportedfindingareashomologoustothemonkeymirrorneuronsystemintheinferiorfrontalcortex,closetoBroca'sarea,oneofthelanguageregionsofthebrain.Thishasledtosuggestionsthathumanlanguageevolvedfromagestureperformance/understandingsystemimplementedinmirrorneurons.Mirrorneuronshavebeensaidtohavethepotentialtoprovideamechanismforaction-understanding,imitation-learning,andthesimulationofotherpeople'sbehavior.[111]ThishypothesisissupportedbysomecytoarchitectonichomologiesbetweenmonkeypremotorareaF5andhumanBroca'sarea.[112] Ratesofvocabularyexpansionlinktotheabilityofchildrentovocallymirrornon-wordsandsotoacquirethenewwordpronunciations.Suchspeechrepetitionoccursautomatically,quickly[113]andseparatelyinthebraintospeechperception.[114][115]Moreover,suchvocalimitationcanoccurwithoutcomprehensionsuchasinspeechshadowing[116]andecholalia.[112][117]FurtherevidenceforthislinkcomesfromarecentstudyinwhichthebrainactivityoftwoparticipantswasmeasuredusingfMRIwhiletheyweregesturingwordstoeachotherusinghandgestureswithagameofcharades—amodalitythatsomehavesuggestedmightrepresenttheevolutionaryprecursorofhumanlanguage.AnalysisofthedatausingGrangerCausalityrevealedthatthemirror-neuronsystemoftheobserverindeedreflectsthepatternofactivityofinthemotorsystemofthesender,supportingtheideathatthemotorconceptassociatedwiththewordsisindeedtransmittedfromonebraintoanotherusingthemirrorsystem.[118] Notalllinguistsagreewiththeabovearguments,however.Inparticular,supportersofNoamChomskyargueagainstthepossibilitythatthemirrorneuronsystemcanplayanyroleinthehierarchicalrecursivestructuresessentialtosyntax.[119] Putting-down-the-babytheory[edit] AccordingtoDeanFalk's"putting-down-the-baby"theory,vocalinteractionsbetweenearlyhominidmothersandinfantsbeganasequenceofeventsthatled,eventually,tohumanancestors'earliestwords.[120]Thebasicideaisthatevolvinghumanmothers,unliketheircounterpartsinotherprimates,couldnotmovearoundandforagewiththeirinfantsclingingontotheirbacks.Lossoffurinthehumancaseleftinfantswithnomeansofclingingon.Frequently,therefore,mothershadtoputtheirbabiesdown.Asaresult,thesebabiesneededtobereassuredthattheywerenotbeingabandoned.Mothersrespondedbydeveloping'motherese'—aninfant-directedcommunicativesystemembracingfacialexpressions,bodylanguage,touching,patting,caressing,laughter,ticklingandemotionallyexpressivecontactcalls.Theargumentisthatlanguagedevelopedoutofthisinteraction.[120] InTheMentalandSocialLifeofBabies,psychologistKennethKayenotedthatnousableadultlanguagecouldhaveevolvedwithoutinteractivecommunicationbetweenveryyoungchildrenandadults."Nosymbolicsystemcouldhavesurvivedfromonegenerationtothenextifitcouldnothavebeeneasilyacquiredbyyoungchildrenundertheirnormalconditionsofsociallife."[121] From-where-to-whattheory[edit] Anillustrationofthe"fromwheretowhat"modeloflanguageevolution The"fromwheretowhat"modelisalanguageevolutionmodelthatisderivedprimarilyfromtheorganizationoflanguageprocessinginthebrainintotwostructures:theauditorydorsalstreamandtheauditoryventralstream.[122][123]Ithypothesizessevenstagesoflanguageevolution(seeillustration).Speechoriginatedforthepurposeofexchangingcontactcallsbetweenmothersandtheiroffspringtofindoneanotherintheeventtheybecameseparated(illustrationpart 1).Thecontactcallscouldbemodifiedwithintonationsinordertoexpresseitherahigherorlowerlevelofdistress(illustrationpart 2).Theuseoftwotypesofcontactcallsenabledthefirstquestion-answerconversation.Inthisscenario,thechildwouldemitalow-leveldistresscalltoexpressadesiretointeractwithanobject,andthemotherwouldrespondwitheitheranotherlow-leveldistresscall(toexpressapprovaloftheinteraction)orahigh-leveldistresscall(toexpressdisapproval)(illustrationpart 3).Overtime,theimproveduseofintonationsandvocalcontrolledtotheinventionofuniquecalls(phonemes)associatedwithdistinctobjects(illustrationpart 4).Atfirst,childrenlearnedthecalls(phonemes)fromtheirparentsbyimitatingtheirlip-movements(illustrationpart 5).Eventually,infantswereabletoencodeintolong-termmemoryallthecalls(phonemes).Consequentially,mimicryvialip-readingwaslimitedtoinfancyandolderchildrenlearnednewcallsthroughmimicrywithoutlip-reading(illustrationpart 6).Onceindividualsbecamecapableofproducingasequenceofcalls,thisallowedmulti-syllabicwords,whichincreasedthesizeoftheirvocabulary(illustrationpart 7).Theuseofwords,composedofsequencesofsyllables,providedtheinfrastructureforcommunicatingwithsequencesofwords(i.e.,sentences). Thetheory'snameisderivedfromthetwoauditorystreams,whicharebothfoundinthebrainsofhumansandotherprimates.Theauditoryventralstreamisresponsibleforsoundrecognition,andsoitisreferredtoastheauditorywhatstream.[124][125][126]Inprimates,theauditorydorsalstreamisresponsibleforsoundlocalization,andthusitiscalledtheauditorywherestream.Onlyinhumans(inthelefthemisphere),isitalsoresponsibleforotherprocessesassociatedwithlanguageuseandacquisition,suchasspeechrepetitionandproduction,integrationofphonemeswiththeirlipmovements,perceptionandproductionofintonations,phonologicallong-termmemory(long-termmemorystorageofthesoundsofwords),andphonologicalworkingmemory(thetemporarystorageofthesoundsofwords).[127][128][129][130][131][132][133][134]Someevidencealsoindicatesaroleinrecognisingothersbytheirvoices.[135][136]Theemergenceofeachofthesefunctionsintheauditorydorsalstreamrepresentsanintermediatestageintheevolutionoflanguage. Acontactcalloriginforhumanlanguageisconsistentwithanimalstudies,aslikehumanlanguage,contactcalldiscriminationinmonkeysislateralisedtothelefthemisphere.[137][138]Micewithknock-outtolanguagerelatedgenes(suchasFOXP2andSRPX2)alsoresultedinthepupsnolongeremittingcontactcallswhenseparatedfromtheirmothers.[139][140]Supportingthismodelisalsoitsabilitytoexplainuniquehumanphenomena,suchastheuseofintonationswhenconvertingwordsintocommandsandquestions,thetendencyofinfantstomimicvocalisationsduringthefirstyearoflife(anditsdisappearancelateron)andtheprotrudingandvisiblehumanlips,whicharenotfoundinotherapes.Thistheorycouldbeconsideredanelaborationoftheputting-down-the-babytheoryoflanguageevolution. Grammaticalisationtheory[edit] "Grammaticalisation"isacontinuoushistoricalprocessinwhichfree-standingwordsdevelopintogrammaticalappendages,whiletheseinturnbecomeevermorespecialisedandgrammatical.Aninitially"incorrect"usage,inbecomingaccepted,leadstounforeseenconsequences,triggeringknock-oneffectsandextendedsequencesofchange.Paradoxically,grammarevolvesbecause,inthefinalanalysis,humanscarelessaboutgrammaticalnicetiesthanaboutmakingthemselvesunderstood.[141]Ifthisishowgrammarevolvestoday,accordingtothisschoolofthought,similarprinciplesatworkcanbelegitimatelyinferredamongdistanthumanancestors,whengrammaritselfwasfirstbeingestablished.[142][143][144] Inordertoreconstructtheevolutionarytransitionfromearlylanguagetolanguageswithcomplexgrammars,itisnecessarytoknowwhichhypotheticalsequencesareplausibleandwhicharenot.Inordertoconveyabstractideas,thefirstrecourseofspeakersistofallbackonimmediatelyrecognizableconcreteimagery,veryoftendeployingmetaphorsrooted[colloquialism]insharedbodilyexperience.[145]Afamiliarexampleistheuseofconcretetermssuchas"belly"or"back"toconveyabstractmeaningssuchas"inside"or"behind".Equallymetaphoricalisthestrategyofrepresentingtemporalpatternsonthemodelofspatialones.Forexample,Englishspeakersmightsay"Itisgoingtorain",modelledon"IamgoingtoLondon."Thiscanbeabbreviatedcolloquiallyto"It'sgonnarain."Evenwheninahurry,Englishspeakersdonotsay"I'mgonnaLondon"—thecontractionisrestrictedtothejobofspecifyingtense.Fromsuchexamplesitcanbeseenwhygrammaticalisationisconsistentlyunidirectional—fromconcretetoabstractmeaning,nottheotherwayaround.[142] Grammaticalisationtheoristspictureearlylanguageassimple,perhapsconsistingonlyofnouns.[144]p. 111Evenunderthatextremetheoreticalassumption,however,itisdifficulttoimaginewhatwouldrealisticallyhavepreventedpeoplefromusing,say,"spear"asifitwereaverb("Spearthatpig!").Peoplemighthaveusedtheirnounsasverbsortheirverbsasnounsasoccasiondemanded.Inshort,whileanoun-onlylanguagemightseemtheoreticallypossible,grammaticalisationtheoryindicatesthatitcannothaveremainedfixedinthatstateforanylengthoftime.[142][146] Creativitydrivesgrammaticalchange.[146]Thispresupposesacertainattitudeonthepartoflisteners.Insteadofpunishingdeviationsfromacceptedusage,listenersmustprioritiseimaginativemind-reading.Imaginativecreativity—emittingaleopardalarmwhennoleopardwaspresent,forexample—isnotthekindofbehaviourwhich,say,vervetmonkeyswouldappreciateorreward.[147]Creativityandreliabilityareincompatibledemands;for"Machiavellian"primatesasforanimalsgenerally,theoverridingpressureistodemonstratereliability.[148]Ifhumansescapetheseconstraints,itisbecauseintheircase,listenersareprimarilyinterestedinmentalstates. Tofocusonmentalstatesistoacceptfictions—inhabitantsoftheimagination—aspotentiallyinformativeandinteresting.Anexampleismetaphor:ametaphoris,literally,afalsestatement.[149]InRomeoandJuliet,Romeodeclares"Julietisthesun!".Julietisawoman,notaballofplasmainthesky,buthumanlistenersarenot(ornotusually)pedantsinsistentonpoint-by-pointfactualaccuracy.Theywanttoknowwhatthespeakerhasinmind.Grammaticalisationisessentiallybasedonmetaphor.Tooutlawitsusewouldbetostopgrammarfromevolvingand,bythesametoken,toexcludeallpossibilityofexpressingabstractthought.[145][150] Acriticismofallthisisthatwhilegrammaticalisationtheorymightexplainlanguagechangetoday,itdoesnotsatisfactorilyaddressthereallydifficultchallenge—explainingtheinitialtransitionfromprimate-stylecommunicationtolanguageasitisknowntoday.Rather,thetheoryassumesthatlanguagealreadyexists.AsBerndHeineandTaniaKutevaacknowledge:"Grammaticalisationrequiresalinguisticsystemthatisusedregularlyandfrequentlywithinacommunityofspeakersandispassedonfromonegroupofspeakerstoanother".[144]Outsidemodernhumans,suchconditionsdonotprevail. Evolution-progressionmodel[edit] Humanlanguageisusedforself-expression;however,expressiondisplaysdifferentstages.Theconsciousnessofselfandfeelingsrepresentsthestageimmediatelypriortotheexternal,phoneticexpressionoffeelingsintheformofsound,i.e.,language.Intelligentanimalssuchasdolphins,Eurasianmagpies,andchimpanzeesliveincommunities,whereintheyassignthemselvesrolesforgroupsurvivalandshowemotionssuchassympathy.[151]Whensuchanimalsviewtheirreflection(mirrortest),theyrecognisethemselvesandexhibitself-consciousness.[152]Notably,humansevolvedinaquitedifferentenvironmentthanthatoftheseanimals.Humansurvivalbecameeasierwiththedevelopmentoftools,shelter,andfire,thusfacilitatingfurtheradvancementofsocialinteraction,self-expression,andtool-making,asforhuntingandgathering.[153]TheincreasingbrainsizeallowedadvancedprovisioningandtoolsandthetechnologicaladvancesduringthePalaeolithicerathatbuiltuponthepreviousevolutionaryinnovationsofbipedalismandhandversatilityallowedthedevelopmentofhumanlanguage.[citationneeded] Self-domesticatedapetheory[edit] Accordingtoastudyinvestigatingthesongdifferencesbetweenwhite-rumpedmuniasanditsdomesticatedcounterpart(Bengalesefinch),thewildmuniasuseahighlystereotypedsongsequence,whereasthedomesticatedonessingahighlyunconstrainedsong.Inwildfinches,songsyntaxissubjecttofemalepreference—sexualselection—andremainsrelativelyfixed.However,intheBengalesefinch,naturalselectionisreplacedbybreeding,inthiscaseforcolourfulplumage,andthus,decoupledfromselectivepressures,stereotypedsongsyntaxisallowedtodrift.Itisreplaced,supposedlywithin1000generations,byavariableandlearnedsequence.Wildfinches,moreover,arethoughtincapableoflearningsongsequencesfromotherfinches.[154]Inthefieldofbirdvocalisation,brainscapableofproducingonlyaninnatesonghaveverysimpleneuralpathways:theprimaryforebrainmotorcentre,calledtherobustnucleusofarcopallium,connectstomidbrainvocaloutputs,whichinturnprojecttobrainstemmotornuclei.Bycontrast,inbrainscapableoflearningsongs,thearcopalliumreceivesinputfromnumerousadditionalforebrainregions,includingthoseinvolvedinlearningandsocialexperience.Controloversonggenerationhasbecomelessconstrained,moredistributed,andmoreflexible.[154] Onewaytothinkabouthumanevolutionisthathumansareself-domesticatedapes.Justasdomesticationrelaxedselectionforstereotypicsongsinthefinches—matechoicewassupplantedbychoicesmadebytheaestheticsensibilitiesofbirdbreedersandtheircustomers—somighthumanculturaldomesticationhaverelaxedselectiononmanyoftheirprimatebehaviouraltraits,allowingoldpathwaystodegenerateandreconfigure.Giventhehighlyindeterminatewaythatmammalianbrainsdevelop—theybasicallyconstructthemselves"bottomup",withonesetofneuronalinteractionspreparingforthenextroundofinteractions—degradedpathwayswouldtendtoseekoutandfindnewopportunitiesforsynaptichookups.Suchinheritedde-differentiationsofbrainpathwaysmighthavecontributedtothefunctionalcomplexitythatcharacteriseshumanlanguage.And,asexemplifiedbythefinches,suchde-differentiationscanoccurinveryrapidtime-frames.[155] Speechandlanguageforcommunication[edit] Seealso:Animalcommunication,Animallanguage,andOriginofspeech Adistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenspeechandlanguage.Languageisnotnecessarilyspoken:itmightalternativelybewrittenorsigned.Speechisamonganumberofdifferentmethodsofencodingandtransmittinglinguisticinformation,albeitarguablythemostnaturalone.[156] Somescholars[likewhom?]viewlanguageasaninitiallycognitivedevelopment,its"externalisation"toservecommunicativepurposesoccurringlaterinhumanevolution.Accordingtoonesuchschoolofthought,thekeyfeaturedistinguishinghumanlanguageisrecursion,[157](inthiscontext,theiterativeembeddingofphraseswithinphrases).Otherscholars—notablyDanielEverett—denythatrecursionisuniversal,citingcertainlanguages(e.g.Pirahã)whichallegedlylackthisfeature.[158] Theabilitytoaskquestionsisconsideredbysome[likewhom?]todistinguishlanguagefromnon-humansystemsofcommunication.[159]Somecaptiveprimates(notablybonobosandchimpanzees),havinglearnedtouserudimentarysigningtocommunicatewiththeirhumantrainers,provedabletorespondcorrectlytocomplexquestionsandrequests.Yettheyfailedtoaskeventhesimplestquestionsthemselves.[160]Conversely,humanchildrenareabletoasktheirfirstquestions(usingonlyquestionintonation)atthebabblingperiodoftheirdevelopment,longbeforetheystartusingsyntacticstructures.Althoughbabiesfromdifferentculturesacquirenativelanguagesfromtheirsocialenvironment,alllanguagesoftheworldwithoutexception—tonal,non-tonal,intonationalandaccented—usesimilarrising"questionintonation"foryes–noquestions.[161][162]Thisfactisastrongevidenceoftheuniversalityofquestionintonation.Ingeneral,accordingtosomeauthors,sentenceintonation/pitchispivotalinspokengrammarandisthebasicinformationusedbychildrentolearnthegrammarofwhateverlanguage.[14] Cognitivedevelopmentandlanguage[edit] Languageusershavehigh-levelreference(ordeixis),theabilitytorefertothingsorstatesofbeingthatarenotintheimmediaterealmofthespeaker.Thisabilityisoftenrelatedtotheoryofmind,oranawarenessoftheotherasabeingliketheselfwithindividualwantsandintentions.AccordingtoChomsky,HauserandFitch(2002),therearesixmainaspectsofthishigh-levelreferencesystem: Theoryofmind Capacitytoacquirenon-linguisticconceptualrepresentations,suchastheobject/kinddistinction Referentialvocalsignals Imitationasarational,intentionalsystem Voluntarycontroloversignalproductionasevidenceofintentionalcommunication Numberrepresentation[157] Theoryofmind[edit] Mainarticle:Theoryofmind SimonBaron-Cohen(1999)arguesthattheoryofmindmusthaveprecededlanguageuse,basedonevidenceofuseofthefollowingcharacteristicsasmuchas40,000yearsago:intentionalcommunication,repairingfailedcommunication,teaching,intentionalpersuasion,intentionaldeception,buildingsharedplansandgoals,intentionalsharingoffocusortopic,andpretending.Moreover,Baron-Cohenarguesthatmanyprimatesshowsome,butnotall,oftheseabilities.[citationneeded]CallandTomasello'sresearchonchimpanzeessupportsthis,inthatindividualchimpsseemtounderstandthatotherchimpshaveawareness,knowledge,andintention,butdonotseemtounderstandfalsebeliefs.Manyprimatesshowsometendenciestowardatheoryofmind,butnotafulloneashumanshave.[163] Ultimately,thereissomeconsensuswithinthefieldthatatheoryofmindisnecessaryforlanguageuse.Thus,thedevelopmentofafulltheoryofmindinhumanswasanecessaryprecursortofulllanguageuse.[164] Numberrepresentation[edit] Inoneparticularstudy,ratsandpigeonswererequiredtopressabuttonacertainnumberoftimestogetfood.Theanimalsshowedveryaccuratedistinctionfornumberslessthanfour,butasthenumbersincreased,theerrorrateincreased.[157]Inanother,theprimatologistTetsuroMatsuzawaattemptedtoteachchimpanzeesArabicnumerals.[165]Thedifferencebetweenprimatesandhumansinthisregardwasverylarge,asittookthechimpsthousandsoftrialstolearn1–9,witheachnumberrequiringasimilaramountoftrainingtime;yet,afterlearningthemeaningof1,2and3(andsometimes4),children(aftertheageof5.5to6)easilycomprehendthevalueofgreaterintegersbyusingasuccessorfunction(i.e.2is1greaterthan1,3is1greaterthan2,4is1greaterthan3;once4isreacheditseemsmostchildrensuddenlyunderstandthatthevalueofanyintegernis1greaterthanthepreviousinteger).[166]Putsimply,otherprimateslearnthemeaningofnumbersonebyone,similartotheirapproachtootherreferentialsymbols,whilechildrenfirstlearnanarbitrarylistofsymbols(1,2,3,4...)andthenlaterlearntheirprecisemeanings.[167]Theseresultscanbeseenasevidencefortheapplicationofthe"open-endedgenerativeproperty"oflanguageinhumannumeralcognition.[157] Linguisticstructures[edit] Lexical-phonologicalprinciple[edit] Hockett(1966)detailsalistoffeaturesregardedasessentialtodescribinghumanlanguage.[168]Inthedomainofthelexical-phonologicalprinciple,twofeaturesofthislistaremostimportant: Productivity:userscancreateandunderstandcompletelynovelmessages. Newmessagesarefreelycoinedbyblending,analogizingfrom,ortransformingoldones. Eitherneworoldelementsarefreelyassignednewsemanticloadsbycircumstancesandcontext.Thissaysthatineverylanguage,newidiomsconstantlycomeintoexistence. Duality(ofPatterning):alargenumberofmeaningfulelementsaremadeupofaconvenientlysmallnumberofindependentlymeaninglessyetmessage-differentiatingelements. Thesoundsystemofalanguageiscomposedofafinitesetofsimplephonologicalitems.Underthespecificphonotacticrulesofagivenlanguage,theseitemscanberecombinedandconcatenated,givingrisetomorphologyandtheopen-endedlexicon.Akeyfeatureoflanguageisthatasimple,finitesetofphonologicalitemsgivesrisetoaninfinitelexicalsystemwhereinrulesdeterminetheformofeachitem,andmeaningisinextricablylinkedwithform.Phonologicalsyntax,then,isasimplecombinationofpre-existingphonologicalunits.Relatedtothisisanotheressentialfeatureofhumanlanguage:lexicalsyntax,whereinpre-existingunitsarecombined,givingrisetosemanticallynovelordistinctlexicalitems.[citationsneeded] Certainelementsofthelexical-phonologicalprincipleareknowntoexistoutsideofhumans.Whileall(ornearlyall)havebeendocumentedinsomeforminthenaturalworld,veryfewcoexistwithinthesamespecies.Bird-song,singingnonhumanapes,andthesongsofwhalesalldisplayphonologicalsyntax,combiningunitsofsoundintolargerstructuresapparentlydevoidofenhancedornovelmeaning.Certainotherprimatespeciesdohavesimplephonologicalsystemswithunitsreferringtoentitiesintheworld.However,incontrasttohumansystems,theunitsintheseprimates'systemsnormallyoccurinisolation,betrayingalackoflexicalsyntax.Thereisnew[when?]evidencetosuggestthatCampbell'smonkeysalsodisplaylexicalsyntax,combiningtwocalls(apredatoralarmcallwitha"boom",thecombinationofwhichdenotesalessenedthreatofdanger),howeveritisstillunclearwhetherthisisalexicaloramorphologicalphenomenon.[169] Pidginsandcreoles[edit] Mainarticles:Creolelanguageandpidgin Pidginsaresignificantlysimplifiedlanguageswithonlyrudimentarygrammarandarestrictedvocabulary.Intheirearlystage,pidginsmainlyconsistofnouns,verbs,andadjectiveswithfewornoarticles,prepositions,conjunctionsorauxiliaryverbs.Oftenthegrammarhasnofixedwordorderandthewordshavenoinflection.[170] Ifcontactismaintainedbetweenthegroupsspeakingthepidginforlongperiodsoftime,thepidginsmaybecomemorecomplexovermanygenerations.Ifthechildrenofonegenerationadoptthepidginastheirnativelanguageitdevelopsintoacreolelanguage,whichbecomesfixedandacquiresamorecomplexgrammar,withfixedphonology,syntax,morphology,andsyntacticembedding.Thesyntaxandmorphologyofsuchlanguagesmayoftenhavelocalinnovationsnotobviouslyderivedfromanyoftheparentlanguages. Studiesofcreolelanguagesaroundtheworldhavesuggestedthattheydisplayremarkablesimilaritiesingrammar[citationneeded]andaredevelopeduniformlyfrompidginsinasinglegeneration.Thesesimilaritiesareapparentevenwhencreolesdonothaveanycommonlanguageorigins.Inaddition,creolesaresimilar,despitebeingdevelopedinisolationfromeachother.Syntacticsimilaritiesincludesubject–verb–objectwordorder.EvenwhencreolesarederivedfromlanguageswithadifferentwordordertheyoftendeveloptheSVOwordorder.Creolestendtohavesimilarusagepatternsfordefiniteandindefinitearticles,andsimilarmovementrulesforphrasestructuresevenwhentheparentlanguagesdonot.[170] Evolutionarytimeline[edit] HominintimelineThisbox:viewtalkedit−10 —–−9 —–−8 —–−7 —–−6 —–−5 —–−4 —–−3 —–−2 —–−1 —–0 —MiocenePliocenePleistoceneHomininiNakalipithecusOuranopithecusOreopithecusSahelanthropusOrrorinArdipithecusAustralopithecusHomohabilisHomoerectusHomobodoensisHomosapiensNeanderthals,Denisovans←Earlierapes←Gorillasplit←Chimpanzeesplit←Earliestbipedal←Earlieststonetools←DispersalbeyondAfrica←Earliestfire/cooking←Earliestclothes←ModernhumansHominids(millionyearsago) Primatecommunication[edit] Fieldprimatologistscangiveusefulinsightsintogreatapecommunicationinthewild.[30]Animportant[accordingtowhom?]findingisthatnonhumanprimates,includingtheothergreatapes,producecallsthataregraded,asopposedtocategoricallydifferentiated,withlistenersstrivingtoevaluatesubtlegradationsinsignallers'emotionalandbodilystates.Nonhumanapesseeminglyfinditextremelydifficulttoproducevocalisationsintheabsenceofthecorrespondingemotionalstates.[45]Incaptivity,nonhumanapeshavebeentaughtrudimentaryformsofsignlanguageorhavebeenpersuadedtouselexigrams—symbolsthatdonotgraphicallyresemblethecorrespondingwords—oncomputerkeyboards.Somenonhumanapes,suchasKanzi,havebeenabletolearnandusehundredsoflexigrams.[171][172] TheBroca'sandWernicke'sareasintheprimatebrainareresponsibleforcontrollingthemusclesoftheface,tongue,mouth,andlarynx,aswellasrecognizingsounds.Primatesareknowntomake"vocalcalls",andthesecallsaregeneratedbycircuitsinthebrainstemandlimbicsystem.[173] Inthewild,thecommunicationofvervetmonkeyshasbeenthemostextensivelystudied.[170]Theyareknowntomakeuptotendifferentvocalizations.Manyoftheseareusedtowarnothermembersofthegroupaboutapproachingpredators.Theyincludea"leopardcall",a"snakecall",andan"eaglecall".[174]Eachcalltriggersadifferentdefensivestrategyinthemonkeyswhohearthecallandscientistswereabletoelicitpredictableresponsesfromthemonkeysusingloudspeakersandprerecordedsounds.Othervocalisationsmaybeusedforidentification.Ifaninfantmonkeycalls,itsmotherturnstowardit,butothervervetmothersturninsteadtowardthatinfant'smothertoseewhatshewilldo.[175][176] Similarly,researchershavedemonstratedthatchimpanzees(incaptivity)usedifferent"words"inreferencetodifferentfoods.Theyrecordedvocalisationsthatchimpsmadeinreference,forexample,tograpes,andthenotherchimpspointedatpicturesofgrapeswhentheyheardtherecordedsound.[177][178] Ardipithecusramidus[edit] AstudypublishedinHOMO:JournalofComparativeHumanBiologyin2017claimsthatArdipithecusramidus,ahominindatedatapproximately4.5Ma,showsthefirstevidenceofananatomicalshiftinthehomininlineagesuggestiveofincreasedvocalcapability.[179]ThisstudycomparedtheskullofA.ramiduswith29chimpanzeeskullsofdifferentagesandfoundthatinnumerousfeaturesA.ramidusclusteredwiththeinfantandjuvenilemeasuresasopposedtotheadultmeasures.Significantly,[accordingtowhom?]suchaffinitywiththeshapedimensionsofinfantandjuvenilechimpanzeeskullarchitecture,itwasargued,mayhaveresultedingreatervocalcapability.Thisassertionwasbasedonthenotionthatthechimpanzeevocaltractratiosthatpreventspeecharearesultofgrowthfactorsassociatedwithpuberty—growthfactorsabsentinA.ramidusontogeny.A.ramiduswasalsofoundtohaveadegreeofcervicallordosismoreconducivetovocalmodulationwhencomparedwithchimpanzeesaswellascranialbasearchitecturesuggestiveofincreasedvocalcapability. Whatwassignificantinthisstudy[accordingtowhom?]wastheobservationthatthechangesinskullarchitecturethatcorrelatewithreducedaggressionarethesamechangesnecessaryfortheevolutionofearlyhomininvocalability.Inintegratingdataonanatomicalcorrelatesofprimatematingandsocialsystemswithstudiesofskullandvocaltractarchitecturethatfacilitatespeechproduction,theauthorsarguethatpaleoanthropologiststodate[when?]havefailedtounderstandtheimportantrelationshipbetweenearlyhomininsocialevolutionandlanguagecapacity. WhiletheskullofA.ramidus,accordingtotheauthors,lackstheanatomicalimpedimentstospeechevidentinchimpanzees,itisunclearwhatthevocalcapabilitiesofthisearlyhomininwere.WhiletheysuggestA.ramidus—basedonsimilarvocaltractratios—mayhavehadvocalcapabilitiesequivalenttoamodernhumaninfantorveryyoungchild,theyconcedethisisobviouslyadebatableandspeculativehypothesis.However,theydoclaimthatchangesinskullarchitecturethroughprocessesofsocialselectionwereanecessaryprerequisiteforlanguageevolution.Astheywrite: WeproposethatasaresultofpaedomorphicmorphogenesisofthecranialbaseandcraniofacialmorphologyAr.ramiduswouldhavenotbeenlimitedintermsofthemechanicalcomponentsofspeechproductionaschimpanzeesandbonobosare.ItispossiblethatAr.ramidushadvocalcapabilityapproximatingthatofchimpanzeesandbonobos,withitsidiosyncraticskullmorphologynotresultinginanysignificantadvancesinspeechcapability.Inthissensetheanatomicalfeaturesanalysedinthisessaywouldhavebeenexaptedinlatermorevolublespeciesofhominin.However,giventheselectiveadvantagesofpro-socialvocalsynchrony,wesuggestthespecieswouldhavedevelopedsignificantlymorecomplexvocalabilitiesthanchimpanzeesandbonobos.[179] EarlyHomo[edit] Anatomically,somescholarsbelievethatfeaturesofbipedalismdevelopedintheaustralopithecinesaround3.5millionyearsago.Aroundthistime,thesestructuraldevelopmentswithintheskullledtoamoreprominentlyL-shapedvocaltract.[180][page needed]Inordertogeneratethesoundsmodernhomosapiensarecapableofmaking,suchasvowels,itisvitalthatEarlyHomopopulationsmusthaveaspecificallyshapedvoicetrackandalowersittinglarynx.[181]OpposingresearchpreviouslysuggestedthatNeanderthalswerephysicallyincapableofcreatingthefullrangeofvocalsseeninmodernhumansduetothedifferencesinlarynxplacement.EstablishingdistinctlarynxpositionsthroughfossilremainsofHomosapiensandNeanderthalswouldsupportthistheory;however,modernresearchhasrevealedthatthehyoidbonewasindistinguishablefromthetwopopulations.Thoughresearchhasshownalowersittinglarynxisimportanttoproducingspeech,anothertheorystatesitmaynotbeasimportantasoncethought.[182]Cataldo,Migliano,&Vinicius(2018)statedthatspeechmayhaveemergedduetoanincreaseintradeandcommunicationbetweendifferentgroups.AnotherviewbyCataldostatesthatspeechwasevolvedtoenabletool-makingbytheNeanderthals.[183] ArchaicHomosapiens[edit] "Hmmmmm"redirectshere.ForHumming,seeHumming(disambiguation). Furtherinformation:Archaichumans StevenMithenproposedthetermHmmmmmforthepre-linguisticsystemofcommunicationpositedtohavebeenusedbyarchaicHomo,beginningwithHomoergasterandreachingthehighestsophisticationintheMiddlePleistocenewithHomoheidelbergensisandHomoneanderthalensis.Hmmmmmisanacronymforholistic(non-compositional),manipulative(utterancesarecommandsorsuggestions,notdescriptivestatements),multi-modal(acousticaswellasgesturalandfacial),musical,andmimetic.[184] Homoerectus EvidenceforHomoerectuspotentiallyusinglanguagecomesintheformofAcheuleantoolusage.TheuseofabstractthoughtintheformationofAcheuleanhandaxescoincideswiththesymbolcreationnecessaryforsimplelanguage.[185]Recentlanguagetheoriespresentrecursionastheuniquefacetofhumanlanguageandtheoryofmind.[186][187]However,breakingdownlanguageintoitssymbolicparts:separatingmeaningfromtherequirementsofgrammar,itbecomespossibletoseethatlanguagedoesnotdependoneitherrecursionorgrammar.ThiscanbeevidencedbythePirahãlanguageusersinBrazilthathavenomythorcreationstories,nonumbersandnocolorswithintheirlanguage.[188]Thisistohighlightthateventhoughgrammarmayhavebeenunavailable,useofforesight,planningandsymbolicthoughtcanbeevidenceoflanguageasearlyasonemillionyearsagowithHomoerectus. Homoheidelbergensis[edit] Seealso:Homoheidelbergensis:Language Homoheidelbergensiswasacloserelative(mostprobablyamigratorydescendant)ofHomoergaster.Someresearchersbelievethisspeciestobethefirsthominintomakecontrolledvocalisations,possiblymimickinganimalvocalisations,[184]andthatasHomoheidelbergensisdevelopedmoresophisticatedculture,proceededfromthispointandpossiblydevelopedanearlyformofsymboliclanguage. Homoneanderthalensis[edit] Seealso:Neanderthalbehavior:Language Thediscoveryin1989ofthe(Neanderthal)Kebara2hyoidbonesuggeststhatNeanderthalsmayhavebeenanatomicallycapableofproducingsoundssimilartomodernhumans.[189][190]Thehypoglossalnerve,whichpassesthroughthehypoglossalcanal,controlsthemovementsofthetongue,whichmayhaveenabledvoicingforsizeexaggeration(seesizeexaggerationhypothesisbelow)ormayreflectspeechabilities.[25][191][192][193][194][195] However,althoughNeanderthalsmayhavebeenanatomicallyabletospeak,RichardG.Kleinin2004doubtedthattheypossessedafullymodernlanguage.Helargelybaseshisdoubtsonthefossilrecordofarchaichumansandtheirstonetoolkit.BartdeBoerin2017acknowledgesthisambiguityofauniversallyacceptedNeanderthalvocaltract;however,henotesthesimilaritiesinthethoracicvertebralcanal,potentialairsacs,andhyoidbonesbetweenmodernhumansandNeanderthalstosuggestthepresenceofcomplexspeech.[196]FortwomillionyearsfollowingtheemergenceofHomohabilis,thestonetooltechnologyofhomininschangedverylittle.Klein,whohasworkedextensivelyonancientstonetools,describesthecrudestonetoolkitofarchaichumansasimpossibletobreakdownintocategoriesbasedontheirfunction,andreportsthatNeanderthalsseemtohavehadlittleconcernforthefinalaestheticformoftheirtools.KleinarguesthattheNeanderthalbrainmayhavenotreachedthelevelofcomplexityrequiredformodernspeech,evenifthephysicalapparatusforspeechproductionwaswell-developed.[197][198]TheissueoftheNeanderthal'slevelofculturalandtechnologicalsophisticationremainsacontroversialone.[citationneeded] Basedoncomputersimulationsusedtoevaluatethatevolutionoflanguagethatresultedinshowingthreestagesintheevolutionofsyntax,Neanderthalsarethoughttohavebeeninstage2,showingtheyhadsomethingmoreevolvedthanproto-languagebutnotquiteascomplexasthelanguageofmodernhumans.[199] Someresearchers,applyingauditorybioengineeringmodelstocomputerisedtomographyscansofNeanderthalskulls,haveassertedthatNeanderthalshadauditorycapacityverysimilartothatofanatomicallymodernhumans.[200]Theseresearchersclaimthatthisfindingimpliesthat"Neanderthalsevolvedtheauditorycapacitiestosupportavocalcommunicationsystemasefficientasmodernhumanspeech."[200] Homosapiens[edit] Seealso:AnatomicallymodernhumansandBehavioralmodernity AnatomicallymodernhumansbegintoappearinthefossilrecordinEthiopiasome200,000yearsago.[201]AlthoughthereisstillmuchdebateastowhetherbehaviouralmodernityemergedinAfricaataroundthesametime,agrowingnumberofarchaeologistsnowadays[when?]invokethesouthernAfricanMiddleStoneAgeuseofredochrepigments—forexampleatBlombosCave—asevidencethatmodernanatomyandbehaviourco-evolved.[202]Thesearchaeologistsarguestronglythatifmodernhumansatthisearlystagewereusingredochrepigmentsforritualandsymbolicpurposes,theyprobablyhadsymboliclanguageaswell.[27] AccordingtotherecentAfricanoriginshypothesis,fromaround60,000–50,000yearsago[203]agroupofhumansleftAfricaandbeganmigratingtooccupytherestoftheworld,carryinglanguageandsymbolicculturewiththem.[204] Thedescendedlarynx[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(May2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thelarynxorvoiceboxisanorganintheneckhousingthevocalfolds,whichareresponsibleforphonation.Inhumans,thelarynxisdescended.Thehumanspeciesisnotuniqueinthisrespect:goats,dogs,pigsandtamarinslowerthelarynxtemporarily,toemitloudcalls.[205]Severaldeerspecieshaveapermanentlyloweredlarynx,whichmaybeloweredstillfurtherbymalesduringtheirroaringdisplays.[206]Lions,jaguars,cheetahsanddomesticcatsalsodothis.[207]However,laryngealdescentinnonhumans(accordingtoPhilipLieberman)isnotaccompaniedbydescentofthehyoid;hencethetongueremainshorizontalintheoralcavity,preventingitfromactingasapharyngealarticulator.[208] LarynxAnatomyofthelarynx,anterolateralviewAnatomicalterminology[editonWikidata] Despiteallthis,scholarsremaindividedastohow"special"thehumanvocaltractreallyis.Ithasbeenshownthatthelarynxdoesdescendtosomeextentduringdevelopmentinchimpanzees,followedbyhyoidaldescent.[209]Asagainstthis,PhilipLiebermanpointsoutthatonlyhumanshaveevolvedpermanentandsubstantiallaryngealdescentinassociationwithhyoidaldescent,resultinginacurvedtongueandtwo-tubevocaltractwith1:1proportions.HearguesthatNeanderthalsandearlyanatomicallymodernhumanscouldnothavepossessedsupralaryngealvocaltractscapableofproducing"fullyhumanspeech".[210]Uniquelyinthehumancase,simplecontactbetweentheepiglottisandvelumisnolongerpossible,disruptingthenormalmammalianseparationoftherespiratoryanddigestivetractsduringswallowing.Sincethisentailssubstantialcosts—increasingtheriskofchokingwhileswallowingfood—weareforcedtoaskwhatbenefitsmighthaveoutweighedthosecosts.Theobviousbenefit—soitisclaimed—musthavebeenspeech.Butthisideahasbeenvigorouslycontested.Oneobjectionisthathumansareinfactnotseriouslyatriskofchokingonfood:medicalstatisticsindicatethataccidentsofthiskindareextremelyrare.[211]Anotherobjectionisthatintheviewofmostscholars,speechasitisknownemergedrelativelylateinhumanevolution,roughlycontemporaneouslywiththeemergenceofHomosapiens.[32]Adevelopmentascomplexasthereconfigurationofthehumanvocaltractwouldhaverequiredmuchmoretime,implyinganearlydateoforigin.Thisdiscrepancyintimescalesunderminestheideathathumanvocalflexibilitywasinitiallydrivenbyselectionpressuresforspeech,thusnotexcludingthatitwasselectedfore.g.improvedsingingability. Thesizeexaggerationhypothesis[edit] Tolowerthelarynxistoincreasethelengthofthevocaltract,inturnloweringformantfrequenciessothatthevoicesounds"deeper"—givinganimpressionofgreatersize.JohnOhalaarguesthatthefunctionoftheloweredlarynxinhumans,especiallymales,isprobablytoenhancethreatdisplaysratherthanspeechitself.[212]Ohalapointsoutthatiftheloweredlarynxwereanadaptationforspeech,adulthumanmaleswouldbeexpectedtobebetteradaptedinthisrespectthanadultfemales,whoselarynxisconsiderablylesslow.However,femalesoutperformmalesinverbaltests,[213]falsifyingthiswholelineofreasoning. W.TecumsehFitchlikewisearguesthatthiswastheoriginalselectiveadvantageoflaryngealloweringinthehumanspecies.Although(accordingtoFitch)theinitialloweringofthelarynxinhumanshadnothingtodowithspeech,theincreasedrangeofpossibleformantpatternswassubsequentlyco-optedforspeech.Sizeexaggerationremainsthesolefunctionoftheextremelaryngealdescentobservedinmaledeer.Consistentwiththesizeexaggerationhypothesis,aseconddescentofthelarynxoccursatpubertyinhumans,althoughonlyinmales.Inresponsetotheobjectionthatthelarynxisdescendedinhumanfemales,Fitchsuggeststhatmothersvocalizingtoprotecttheirinfantswouldalsohavebenefitedfromthisability.[214] Phonemicdiversity[edit] In2011,QuentinAtkinsonpublishedasurveyofphonemesfrom500differentlanguagesaswellaslanguagefamiliesandcomparedtheirphonemicdiversitybyregion,numberofspeakersanddistancefromAfrica.ThesurveyrevealedthatAfricanlanguageshadthelargestnumberofphonemes,andOceaniaandSouthAmericahadthesmallestnumber.Afterallowingforthenumberofspeakers,thephonemicdiversitywascomparedtoover2000possibleoriginlocations.Atkinson's"bestfit"modelisthatlanguageoriginatedincentralandsouthernAfricabetween80,000and160,000yearsago.ThispredatesthehypothesizedsoutherncoastalpeoplingofArabia,India,southeastAsia,andAustralia.Itwouldalsomeanthattheoriginoflanguageoccurredatthesametimeastheemergenceofsymbolicculture.[11] History[edit] Inreligionandmythology[edit] Mainarticle:Mythicaloriginsoflanguage Seealso:DivinelanguageandAdamiclanguage Thesearchfortheoriginoflanguagehasalonghistoryinmythology.Mostmythologiesdonotcredithumanswiththeinventionoflanguagebutspeakofadivinelanguagepredatinghumanlanguage.Mysticallanguagesusedtocommunicatewithanimalsorspirits,suchasthelanguageofthebirds,arealsocommon,andwereofparticularinterestduringtheRenaissance. VācistheHindugoddessofspeech,or"speechpersonified".AsBrahman's"sacredutterance",shehasacosmologicalroleasthe"MotheroftheVedas".TheAztecs'storymaintainsthatonlyaman,Coxcox,andawoman,Xochiquetzal,survivedaflood,havingfloatedonapieceofbark.Theyfoundthemselvesonlandandhadmanychildrenwhowereatfirstbornunabletospeak,butsubsequently,uponthearrivalofadove,wereendowedwithlanguage,althougheachonewasgivenadifferentspeechsuchthattheycouldnotunderstandoneanother.[215] IntheOldTestament,theBookofGenesis(11)saysthatGodpreventedtheTowerofBabelfrombeingcompletedthroughamiraclethatmadeitsconstructionworkersstartspeakingdifferentlanguages.Afterthis,theymigratedtootherregions,groupedtogetheraccordingtowhichofthenewlycreatedlanguagestheyspoke,explainingtheoriginsoflanguagesandnationsoutsideoftheFertileCrescent.[216] Historicalexperiments[edit] Mainarticle:Languagedeprivationexperiments Historycontainsanumberofanecdotesaboutpeoplewhoattemptedtodiscovertheoriginoflanguagebyexperiment.ThefirstsuchtalewastoldbyHerodotus(Histories2.2).HerelatesthatPharaohPsammetichus(probablyPsammetichusI,7thcenturyBC)hadtwochildrenraisedbyashepherd,withtheinstructionsthatnooneshouldspeaktothem,butthattheshepherdshouldfeedandcareforthemwhilelisteningtodeterminetheirfirstwords.Whenoneofthechildrencried"bekos"withoutstretchedarmstheshepherdconcludedthatthewordwasPhrygian,becausethatwasthesoundofthePhrygianwordfor"bread".Fromthis,PsammetichusconcludedthatthefirstlanguagewasPhrygian.KingJamesVofScotlandissaidtohavetriedasimilarexperiment;hischildrenweresupposedtohavespokenHebrew.[217] BoththemedievalmonarchFrederickIIandAkbararesaidtohavetriedsimilarexperiments;thechildreninvolvedintheseexperimentsdidnotspeak.Thecurrentsituationofdeafpeoplealsopointsintothisdirection.[clarificationneeded] Historyofresearch[edit] Mainarticle:Evolutionarylinguistics Modernlinguisticsdidnotbeginuntilthelate18thcentury,andtheRomanticoranimistthesesofJohannGottfriedHerderandJohannChristophAdelungremainedinfluentialwellintothe19thcentury.Thequestionoflanguageoriginseemedinaccessibletomethodicalapproaches,andin1866theLinguisticSocietyofParisfamouslybannedalldiscussionoftheoriginoflanguage,deemingittobeanunanswerableproblem.Anincreasinglysystematicapproachtohistoricallinguisticsdevelopedinthecourseofthe19thcentury,reachingitsculminationintheNeogrammarianschoolofKarlBrugmannandothers.[citationneeded] However,scholarlyinterestinthequestionoftheoriginoflanguagehasonlygraduallybeenrekindled[colloquialism]fromthe1950son(andthencontroversially)withideassuchasuniversalgrammar,masscomparisonandglottochronology.[citationneeded] 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Furtherreading[edit] Allott,Robin.(1989).TheMotorTheoryofLanguageOrigin.Sussex,England:BookGuild.ISBN 978-0-86332-359-1.OCLC 21874255. Armstrong,DavidF.;Stokoe,WilliamC.;Wilcox,ShermanE.(1995).GestureandtheNatureofLanguage.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-52-146772-8. Botha,RudolfP;Everaert,Martin,eds.(2013).TheEvolutionaryEmergenceofLanguage:EvidenceandInference.Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-965484-0.OCLC 828055639. Botha,RudolfP.;Knight,Chris(2009).ThePrehistoryofLanguage.Oxford;NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-954587-2.OCLC 819189595. Burling,Robbins(2005).TheTalkingApe:HowLanguageEvolved.Oxford;NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-927940-1.OCLC 750809912. Cangelosi,Angelo;Greco,Alberto;Harnad,Stevan(2002).AngeloCangelosi;DomenicoParisi(eds.).SymbolGroundingandtheSymbolicTheftHypothesis.SimulatingtheEvolutionofLanguage.London;NewYork:Springer.ISBN 978-1-85233-428-4.OCLC 47824669. Corballis,MichaelC.(2002).FromHandtoMouth:TheOriginsofLanguage.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-691-08803-7.OCLC 469431753. Crystal,David(1997).TheCambridgeEncyclopediaofLanguage.Cambridge;NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-55967-6.OCLC 34704876. deGrolier,E.(ed.),1983.TheOriginandEvolutionofLanguage.Paris:HarwoodAcademicPublishers. Dessalles,J-L.,2007.WhyWeTalk:TheEvolutionaryOriginsofLanguage.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0199563463 Dor,Dan;Knight,Chris;Lewis,Jerome(2015).TheSocialOriginsofLanguage.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-966533-4. Dunbar,R.I.M.(RobinIanMacDonald);Knight,Chris;Power,Camilla(1999).TheEvolutionofCulture:AnInterdisciplinaryView.Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-7486-1076-1.OCLC 807340111. Everett,DanielL.(2017).HowLanguageBegan:TheStoryofHumanity'sGreatestInvention.NewYork:Liveright.ISBN 978-0871407955. Fitch,W.Tecumseh(2010).TheEvolutionofLanguage.Cambridge:Cambridge.ISBN 978-0-521-67736-3.OCLC 428024376. Givón,Talmy;Malle,BertramF(2002).TheEvolutionofLanguageoutofPre-Language.Amsterdam;Philadelphia:J.BenjaminsPub.ISBN 978-1-58811-237-8.OCLC 223393453. Harnad,StevanR.(1976).Steklis,HorstD.;Lancaster,Jane(eds.).OriginsandEvolutionofLanguageandSpeech.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,v.280.NewYork:NewYorkAcademyofSciences.ISBN 0-89072-026-6.OCLC 2493424. Hillert,Dieter(2014).TheNatureofLanguage:Evolution,ParadigmsandCircuits.NewYork:SpringerNature.ISBN 978-1-4939-0609-3. Hurford,JamesR(1990).I.M.Roca(ed.).NativistandFunctionalExplanationsinLanguageAcquisition(PDF).Logicalissuesinlanguageacquisition.Dordrecht,HollandProvidence,R.I:ForisPublications.ISBN 9789067655064.OCLC 832515162. Hurford,JamesR.(2007).TheOriginsofMeaning:LanguageintheLightofEvolution.Oxford;NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-920785-5.OCLC 263645256. Hurford,JamesR.;Studdert-Kennedy,Michael.;Knight,Chris(1998).ApproachestotheEvolutionofLanguage:SocialandCognitiveBases.Cambridge,UK;NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-63964-4.OCLC 37742390. Kenneally,Christine.(2007).TheFirstWord:TheSearchfortheOriginsofLanguage.NewYork:Viking.ISBN 978-0-670-03490-1.OCLC 80460757. Knight,Chris(2016)."PuzzlesandMysteriesintheOriginofLanguage"(PDF).LanguageandCommunication.50:12–21.doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2016.09.002. Knight,Chris;Studdert-Kennedy,Michael.;Hurford,JamesR.(2000).TheEvolutionaryEmergenceofLanguage:SocialFunctionandtheOriginsofLinguisticForm.Cambridge;NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-78157-2.OCLC 807262339. Komarova,NataliaL.(2006).LEGrinin;VictorCDeMunck;AVKorotaev;Rossiĭskiĭgosudarstvennyĭgumanitarnyĭuniversitet.(eds.).LanguageandMathematics:Anevolutionarymodelofgrammaticalcommunication.Historyandmathematics.Analyzingandmodelingglobaldevelopment.[Moskva]:URSS.pp. 164–179.ISBN 978-5-484-01001-1.OCLC 182730511. Lenneberg,E.H.1967.BiologicalFoundationsofLanguage.NewYork:Wiley.ISBN 9780471526261 Leroi-Gourhan,A.1993.GestureandSpeech.Trans.A.BostockBerger.Cambridge,Massachusetts:MITPress.ISBN 9780262121736 Lieberman,Philip.(1991).UniquelyHuman:TheEvolutionofSpeech,Thought,andSelflessBehavior.Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-674-92182-5.OCLC 21764294. Lieberman,P.(2007)."TheEvolutionofHumanSpeech:ItsAnatomicalandNeuralBases"(PDF).CurrentAnthropology.48(1):39–66.doi:10.1086/509092.S2CID 28651524. Lieberman,Philip.(2006).TowardanEvolutionaryBiologyofLanguage.Cambridge,Massachusetts:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-674-02184-6.OCLC 62766735. Logan,RobertK.2007.TheExtendedMind:TheEmergenceofLanguage,theHumanMindandCulture.Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress.ISBN 9781442691803 MacNeilage,P.2008.TheOriginofSpeech.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 9780199581580 Mazlumyan,Victoria2008.OriginsofLanguageandThought.ISBN 0977391515. Mithen,Stephen2006.TheSingingNeanderthals:TheOriginsofMusic,Language,MindandBody.ISBN 9780753820513 Pinker,Steven(2007).TheLanguageInstinct:HowtheMindCreatesLanguage.NewYork:HarperPerennialModernClassics.ISBN 9780061336461.OCLC 672454779. Tomasello,M.2008.OriginsofHumanCommunication.Cambridge,Massachusetts:MITPress.ISBN 9780262261203 Externallinks[edit] LookupglottogonyinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. OriginofLanguage–Givens,DavidB. BehavioralandBiologicalOriginsofModernHumans–Klein,RichardG. TheOriginofLanguage–Vajda,Edward FirstLanguageAcquisition–Vajda,Edward SpeakinginTongues:TheHistoryofLanguage DecodingChomsky:Scienceandrevolutionarypolitics–ChrisKnight vteHumanevolutionTaxonomy(Hominins)Lastcommonancestors Chimpanzee–human Gorilla–human Orangutan–human Gibbon–human Australopithecines Orrorin Sahelanthropus Kenyanthropus Ardipithecus A.kadabba A.ramidus Australopithecus A.afarensis A.africanus A.anamensis A.bahrelghazali A.deyiremeda A.garhi A.sediba Paranthropus P.aethiopicus P.boisei P.robustus Humansandproto-humans(Homo)Proto-humans H.gautengensis(?) H.habilis H.naledi H.rudolfensis(?) H.tsaichangensis(?) Homoerectus H.e.erectus H.e.georgicus H.e.lantianensis H.e.nankinensis H.e.pekinensis H.e.soloensis H.e.tautavelensis H.e.yuanmouensis Archaichumans H.antecessor Denisovans H.ergaster(?) H.floresiensis H.heidelbergensis H.longi(?) H.luzonensis H.neanderthalensis H.rhodesiensis(?) ModernhumansHomosapiens H.s.sapiens(archaichomosapiens,anatomicallymodernhumans) JebelIrhoud H.s.idaltu Cro-Magnon Manotpeople TamPaLing RedDeerCavepeople Ancestors Homohabilis→Homoergaster/Homoerectus(→Homoantecessor)?→Homoheidelbergensis→archaicHomosapiens→Homosapiens ModelsGeneralmodels Hunting Gathering Endurancerunning Aquaticape Sexualselection Self-domestication Specificmodels Diet Cooking Expensivetissue Shore-based Drunkenmonkey Behavior Killerape Cooperativeeye Lifehistory Grandmother Patriarch Topics Bipedalism Skeleton Muscles Skincolor Hair Thermoregulation Speech Language Intelligence Genderroles Originofmodernhumans RecentAfricanorigin Multiregionalorigin Archaicadmixture Behavioralmodernity Earlymigrations Recentevolution Timelines Humanevolution Humanprehistory Humantimeline Others Theorists Books Fossils Evolutionaryanthropology Category Commons EvolutionarybiologyPortal vteAnimalcommunicationConcepts Animaltraining Animallanguage Animalcognition Anecdotalcognitivism Bioacoustics Deceptioninanimals Ethology Evolutionarylinguistics FOXP2 FOXP2andhumanevolution Talkinganimals Originoflanguage Human–animalcommunication Animal-specific Birdvocalization Talkingbirds Alex Greatapelanguage(Yerkish) Whalesong Dogcommunication Catcommunication Relatedtopics Category:Talkingbirds Category:Apesfromlanguagestudies vtePrehistorictechnology Prehistory Timeline Outline StoneAge Subdivisions NewStoneAge Technology history Glossary ToolsFarming NeolithicRevolution Foundercrops NewWorldcrops Ard /plough Celt Diggingstick Domestication Goad Irrigation Secondaryproducts Sickle Terracing Foodprocessing Fire Basket Cooking Earthoven Granaries Grindingslab Groundstone Hearth AşıklıHöyük Qesemcave Manos Metate Mortarandpestle Pottery Quern-stone Storagepits Hunting Arrow Boomerang throwingstick Bowandarrow history Nets Spear spear-thrower baton harpoon woomera Schöningenspears Projectilepoints Arrowhead BareIsland Cascade Clovis Cresswell Cumberland Eden Folsom Lamoka ManisMastodon Plano Transversearrowhead Systems Gamedrivesystem Buffalojump Toolmaking Earliesttoolmaking Oldowan Acheulean Mousterian Aurignacian Clovisculture Cupstone Firehardening Gravettianculture Hafting Handaxe Grooves Langdaleaxeindustry Levalloistechnique Lithiccore Lithicreduction analysis debitage flake Lithictechnology Magdalenianculture Metallurgy Microbladetechnology Mining Prepared-coretechnique Solutreanindustry Strikingplatform Toolstone Uniface Yubetsutechnique Othertools Adze Awl bone Axe Bannerstone Blade prismatic Bonetool Bowdrill Burin Canoe Oar Pessecanoe Chopper tool Cleaver Denticulatetool Fireplough Fire-saw Hammerstone Knife Microlith Quern-stone Racloir Rope Scraper side Stonetool Tallystick Weapons Wheel illustration ArchitectureCeremonial Kiva Pyramid Standingstones megalith row Stonehenge Dwellings Neolithicarchitecture longhouse Britishmegalitharchitecture Nordicmegalitharchitecture Burdei Cave Cliffdwelling Dugout Hut Quigglyhole Jacal Longhouse Mudbrick Mehrgarh Pit-house Pueblitos Pueblo Rockshelter BlombosCave AbridelaMadeleine SibuduCave Roundhouse Stilthouse Alppiledwellings Stoneroof Wattleanddaub Watermanagement Checkdam Cistern Flushtoilet Reservoir Well Otherarchitecture Archaeologicalfeatures Broch Burntmound fulachtfiadh Causewayedenclosure Torenclosure Circularenclosure Goseck Cursus Henge Thornborough Megalithicarchitecturalelements Midden Oldestsurvivingbuildings Timbercircle Timbertrackway SweetTrack ArtsandcultureMaterialgoods Baskets Beadwork Beds Chalcolithic Clothing/textiles timeline Cosmetics Glue Hides shoes Ötzi Jewelry amberuse Mirrors Pottery Cardium Cord-marked Groovedware Linear Jōmon Unstanware Sewingneedle Weaving Wine winery winepress Prehistoricart ArtoftheUpperPaleolithic ArtoftheMiddlePaleolithic BlombosCave ListofStoneAgeart Birdstone Cairn Carvedstoneballs Cavepaintings Cupandringmark Geoglyph Goldenhats Guardianstones GwionGwionrockpaintings painting pigment Megalithicart Petroform 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Glottochronology Lexicostatistics Linguisticreconstruction Internalreconstruction Linguisticuniversal Macrofamily Masscomparison Originoflanguage Paleolinguistics Proto-language Swadeshlist Dolgopolskylist Leipzig–Jakartalist Languagefamilies Proto-Humanlanguage Borean Amerind Nostratic Eurasiatic Altaic Ural-Altaic Indo-Uralic Dené–Caucasian NorthCaucasian Austric Indo-Pacific Linguists JohnBengtson VáclavBlažek AllanR.Bomhard SvetlanaBurlak AharonDolgopolsky VladimirDybo HaroldC.Fleming JosephGreenberg EugeneHelimski MurrayGell-Mann VladislavIllich-Svitych FrederikKortlandt AlexisManasterRamer SergeiNikolaev SorinPaliga HolgerPedersen IliaPeiros MartineRobbeets MerrittRuhlen VitalyShevoroshkin GeorgiyStarostin SergeiStarostin AlfredoTrombetti Journals JournalofLanguageRelationship MotherTongue Books EtymologicalDictionaryoftheAltaicLanguages TheLanguagesofAfrica Institutionsandschools EvolutionofHumanLanguages InstituteofLinguisticsoftheRussianAcademyofSciences MoscowSchoolofComparativeLinguistics RussianStateUniversityfortheHumanities SantaFeInstitute LinguisticsportalCategory vteEvolutionarypsychology History Theoreticalfoundations Criticism Processes Adaptations Altruism Cheating Reciprocal Baldwineffect By-products Cognitivemodule Automatic/Controlled Evolutionarilystablestrategy Exaptation Fitness Inclusive Kinselection Mismatch Naturalselection Parentalinvestment Sexualselection Male/Femaleintrasexualcompetition Matechoice Sexualdimorphism Socialselection Areas Aesthetics Literarycriticism Musicology Anthropology Biological Crime Lead–crimehypothesis Culture Behavioralmodernity Universals Development Attachment Bonding Affectional/Maternal/Paternalbond Caregiverdeprivation Childhoodattachment Cognitivedevelopment Personalitydevelopment Socialization Education Emotion Affect Affectdisplay Displayrules Facialexpression Fight-or-flightresponse Intelligence Flynneffect Multitasking Theoryofmind Wasonselectiontask Language Origin Psychology 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ChristopherBoehm RobertBoyd DonaldE.Brown NapoleonChagnon RobinDunbar DanielFessler MarkFlinn JohnD.Hawks JosephHenrich RuthMace DanielNettle StephenShennan DonaldSymons JohnTooby PierrevandenBerghe Behavioraleconomists /politicalscientists SamuelBowles ErnstFehr HerbertGintis DominicD.P.Johnson GadSaad Literarytheorists /philosophers EdmundBurke JosephCarroll DanielDennett DenisDutton ThomasHobbes DavidHume Psychologists /cognitivescientists MaryAinsworth SimonBaron-Cohen JustinL.Barrett JayBelsky JesseBering DavidF.Bjorklund PaulBloom JohnBowlby PascalBoyer JosephBulbulia DavidBuss JosepCall AnneCampbell DonaldT.Campbell PeterCarruthers NoamChomsky LedaCosmides MartinDaly PaulEkman BruceJ.Ellis AnneFernald AurelioJoséFigueredo DianaFleischman UtaFrith DavidC.Geary GerdGigerenzer JonathanHaidt HarryHarlow JudithRichHarris StephenKaplan DouglasT.Kenrick SimonM.Kirby RobertKurzban BrianMacWhinney MichaelT.McGuire GeoffreyMiller DarciaNarvaez KatherineNelson RandolphM.Nesse StevenNeuberg DavidPerrett StevenPinker PaulRozin MarkSchaller DavidP.Schmitt NancySegal ToddK.Shackelford RogerShepard IrwinSilverman PeterK.Smith DanSperber AnthonyStevens FrankSulloway MichaelTomasello MarkvanVugt AndrewWhiten GlennWilson MargoWilson Researchcenters/organizations CenterforEvolutionaryPsychology HumanBehaviorandEvolutionSociety MaxPlanckInstituteforEvolutionaryAnthropology MaxPlanckInstituteforHumanCognitiveandBrainSciences NewEnglandComplexSystemsInstitute Publications TheAdaptedMind EvolutionandHumanBehavior TheEvolutionofHumanSexuality Evolution,MindandBehaviour EvolutionaryBehavioralSciences EvolutionaryPsychology Relatedsubjects Behavioral/Evolutionaryeconomics Behavioralepigenetics Behaviouralgenetics Behavioral/Cognitive/Evolutionaryneuroscience Bioculturalanthropology Cognitivescience Cognitivepsychology Cognitivism Computationaltheoryofmind Philosophyofmind Culturalevolution Culturalselectiontheory Memetics Multilinealevolution Neoevolutionism Socioculturalevolution Unilinealevolution Determinism/Indeterminism Biologicaldeterminism Connectionism Environmentaldeterminism Natureversusnurture Psychologicalnativism Socialconstructionism Socialdeterminism Standardsocialsciencemodel Ethology Evolutionarymedicine CriticismofFacebook Humanfactorsandergonomics Socialaspectsoftelevision Textingwhiledriving Functionalpsychology Modularityofmind Domaingenerality Domainspecificity Dualprocesstheory Primatology Sociobiology Unitofselection Coevolution Culturalgroupselection Dualinheritancetheory Gene-centeredviewofevolution Groupselection Hologenometheory Lamarckism Punctuatedequilibrium Recenthumanevolution Transgenerationalepigeneticinheritance  Evolutionarypsychology  Psychologyportal  Evolutionarybiologyportal Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Germany Israel UnitedStates CzechRepublic Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&oldid=1112029551" 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