Grandeur of Art during the Qing - Projects

Art during the Qing dynasty was dominated by three major groups of artists. The first, sometimes called "the Individualists," was a group of men largely made up ...         MaxwellK.Hearn,Consultant SKIPTOSUBTOPICS SchoolsofArtduringtheQing Sidebar/Image:TheChineseLiterati ChineseApproachestotheWorkofArt Sidebar/Image:TheQianlongEmperor,Collector&Connoisseur RepresentingSpaceandtheExternalWorld Sidebar:ClassificationsofPictorialSpaceinChinesePainting InfluenceofEuropeanArtisticStylesonChinesePainting Pop-up/Image:GiuseppeCastiglione Interactive:ComparisonofKangxiandQianlongInspectionTourScrolls ChineseArtinEurope:Porcelain Image:ChineseExportPorcelain SCHOOLSOFARTDURINGTHEQINGDYNASTY ArtduringtheQingdynastywasdominatedbythreemajorgroupsofartists.Thefirst,sometimescalled"theIndividualists,"wasagroupofmenlargelymadeupofloyaliststothefallenMingdynasty.TheIndividualistsreferredtothemselvesas"leftoversubjectsoftheMing"andpracticedaverypersonalformofartthatsoughttoexpresstheirreactiontotheManchuconquest--eitherasenseofresistance,reclusion,orsadnessoverthefalloftheMingdynasty.Theyoftenremovedthemselvesnotonlyfromgovernmentcirclesbutalsofromsociety,oftenbybecomingBuddhistmonks.TheIndividualistssoughttoexpressintheirarttheirownfeelingsregardingthefalloftheMingdynastyandtheconquestofChinabyagroupofpeoplewhomtheyregardedasbarbarians.Theseartistsfocusedparticularlyontheexpressivepotentialofpaintingandsoughtnottoemulatepastmodelssomuchastousepoetry,painting,andcalligraphyinwaysthatwouldexpresstheirfeelingsofdefianceandlossoverthefalloftheMingdynasty.[Readmoreabout"theIndividualists"atTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.] AsecondgroupofQingartistsincludedthosemenwhodedicatedthemselvestothepreservationofChinesetraditionalculturebyreturningtothecarefulstudyofacanonofearliermastersthathadbeendefinedinthe17thcentury.Theircommitmenttoreplicatingandbeinginspiredbythisearliercanonofmasterpiecesledtothelabelingoftheseartistsas"theOrthodoxschool."TheOrthodoxmastersmadeapointoffirstimitatingtheseestablishedearliermodelsandthentryingtoincorporatethesestylistictraditionsintotheirownwork.Theyoftencreatedalbumsofpaintingswhereineachleafwouldbedevotedtotheexpositionofaspecificearlierstyle.Inthisway,aparticularalbumwoulddemonstrateanindividual'scommandoverawholerangeofearlierstylistictraditions.[Readmoreabouttraditionalistsand"theOrthodoxschool"atTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.] AthirdgroupofQingartistsincludedcommercialandcourtartistswhospecializedinlarge-scaledecorativeworks.Suchartistswereemployedbytheimperialcourttoproducedocumentary,commemorative,anddecorativeworksfortheimperialpalaces.Mastersoftechnique,theseartistsdrewupontherepresentationalstylesoftheSongdynasty,whenmeticulouslydescriptivepaintingtechniqueswerehighlyrevered.[ReadmoreaboutprofessionalandcourtartistsatTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.]   ElegantGatheringintheApricotGarden(Detail) Mingdynasty,ca.1437 AfterXieHuan(ca.1370-ca.1450) ©TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt InChina,theliterateelitewereoftenreferredtoasthe"literati."Theliteratiwerethegentryclass,composedofindividualswhopassedthecivilserviceexams(orthoseforwhomthiswasthemajorgoalinlife)andwhowereboththescholarlyandgovernmentaleliteofthesociety.Theliteratialsopridedthemselvesontheirmasteryofcalligraphy.Often,asanadjuncttocalligraphy,theywerealsoabletopaint.DuringtheQingdynasty,boththeIndividualistsandtheOrthodoxschoolmasterscamefromthiselitescholarclass. TheScholar-Artists TheIndividualistandOrthodoxmasterswereproficientscholarswhooftenembellishedtheirpaintingswithpoetry.Thesemenwerepartofalong-standingtraditionofthe"scholar-artist"thathadexistedinChinaasfarbackasthe11thcentury.Membersoftheeducatedelite,alsocalledthe"literati,"hadalreadytakenpossessionofcalligraphy--theartofwriting--asaformofself-expression.Butbythe11thcentury,theybegantoapplytheaestheticprinciplesofcalligraphicbrushworktopainting.Theybeganbypaintingsubjectsthatcouldbedepictedeasilywiththebrushtechniquesthattheyhadmasteredintheartofcalligraphy,suchasbamboo,rocks,andpinetrees.Thisapproachtosubjectmattersetscholar-artistsapartfromcommercialartists,whopursuedamorerepresentationalmanner. WangHuiandtheOrthodoxSchoolofPainting ItwasastrokeofgeniusonthepartoftheKangxiEmperortoenlisttheforemostOrthodoxschoolmaster,WangHui(1632-1717),todirectthepaintingofthemonumentalSouthernInspectionTourscrolls,theexecutionofwhichwassuretobeanenormouschallenge.WangHuiwasoneoftheleadingartistsofthetimeandanacknowledgedmasteratcreatinglonglandscapecompositionsinthehandscrollformat.Furthermore,hisselectionimmediatelyidentifiedtheQingcourtwithChina'smostreveredartistictraditions. |backtotop|   CHINESEAPPROACHESTOTHEWORKOFART PersonalExpressionValuedOver"Realism" Although"realistic"paintingintheEuropeanstylewasverymuchinvogueattheQingcourt,whereitwasappreciatedforitsdocumentaryvalueincommemoratingtheQianlongEmperor'sexploits,itwasnotregardedas"highart."TheChineseandtheirManchurulersheldtothebeliefthatthehighestformofpictorialexpressionwastraditionalChinesepainting,whichprivilegedthepersonalexpressionoftheindividualartistovertherepresentationofexternalappearances.Sincethe14thcenturywhatmatteredmostinChinesepaintingwastheartist'sabilitytoexpresshispersonalfeelings--tocreateanimageofhisinteriorworld--ratherthantodescribetheexternalappearancesofthings.Asaresult,mostChinesepaintingconnoisseursregardedtheEuropeanstyleaslittlemorethanagimmick. TheImportanceofPoetryforArtistsandConnoisseurs Chineseliteratiartistsoftenwrotepoemsdirectlyontheirpaintings.Thispracticeemphasizedtheimportanceofbothpoetryandcalligraphytotheartofpaintingandalsohighlightedthenotionthatapaintingshouldnottrytorepresentorimitatetheexternalworld,butrathertoexpressorreflecttheinnerstateoftheartist.Theartist'spracticeofwritingpoetrydirectlyonthepaintingalsoledtothecustomoflaterappreciatorsofthework--perhapstheinitialrecipientofthepaintingoralaterowner--addingtheirownreactionstothework,oftenalsointheformofpoetry.Theseinscriptionscouldbeaddedeitherdirectlyonthesurfaceofthepainting,orsometimesonasheetofpapermountedadjacenttothepainting.Inthiswaysomehandscrollsaccommodatednumerouscolophonsbylaterownersandadmirers.ThusinChinesearttheactofownershipentailedtheresponsibilityofnotonlycaringfortheworkproperly,buttoacertainextentalsorecordingone'sresponsetoit.[ReadaboutLiGonglin,theSongdynastypainterwhogaveformtotheidealofpaintingasareflectionoftheartist'smindandanexpressionofdeeplyheldvalues,atTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.Alsolearnaboutseals,inscriptions,andcolophonsatTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sExploreandLearnwebsite,ALookatChinesePainting.]   DwellingintheFuchunMountains(Zimingversion)(Detail) CopyafterHuangGongwang(1269-1354) ©NationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei TheQianlongEmperorwasanavidcollectorandconnoisseurofChineseart,andthenumberofpaintingsandartifactscollectedduringhisreignwasunprecedented.ManypalacehallswereusedspecificallyfortheEmperortoadmireandstudyworksofart.TheQianlongEmperorhadatendencytoadmiretheworkshecollectedandcommissionedbyaddingagreatnumberofsealsandinscriptions--usuallyintheformofpoems--totheworks.Insodoing,theemperornotonlyendowedtheseworksofartwiththeimperialimprimaturbutalso,byleavinghismarkonsomeofthemostimportantworksofChineseart,assertedhiscontroloverChinesecultureandhislegitimacyastheultimateconnoisseurofChineseart.Oftenhemusthavehadghostwritershelpinghiminscribethesepoems,buthedidwritemanyofthemhimself.Infact,theQianlongEmperorissaidtohavecomposedsome40,000poems,andmanyofthemareinscribedontheenormouscollectionofpaintingsamassedduringhisreign.Asaresult,theQianlongEmperor'sinscriptionsandsealsappearonhundredsofthemostimportantChinesepaintingsthatexisttoday. TheWorkofArtasaDialoguewiththePast:TheRoleofOwnersandConnoisseurs OneofthemostextraordinarycharacteristicsofChinesepaintingisthat,inaway,apaintingisneverquitefinished.Whatdoesthismean?Justastheartiststhemselvesusedpoetryasamediumofexpressioninpainting,laterappreciatorsofapaintingfeltfreetoaddtoitbywritingapoeminresponsetothework,orsometimesjustaddingapersonalseal,directlyonthesurfaceofthepaintingortothesilkmountingborderingthepainting.Inthiswayapaintingremains"open-ended,"andviewingapaintingislikeengaginginanongoingconversation,notonlywiththeartist,butwithallthepeoplewhohaveinthepastownedtheworkandhaverecordedtheirresponsetoit.Andthroughthisvisualrecord,apainting'sprovenancecanbetraced,sothatliterallywrittenonthesurfaceofthepaintingistheveryhistoryofwhoownedit,howpeopleovertimehaveappreciatedit,andhowdifferenterassawitsmeritsinadifferentlight.Whenaconnoisseurlooksatapaintingtoday,heorshenotonlyexaminesthework,buttakesgreatdelightinseeingwhichothercollectorsownedit,andwhatsomeoftheseownersandothercommentatorshavehadtosayaboutit. |backtotop|   REPRESENTINGSPACEANDTHEEXTERNALWORLD ThepaintersoftheQingdynastywereinheritorsofatraditionthatwasalreadymorethanathousandyearsold.Bythe13thcentury,Chineseartistshadmasteredtheillusionofrecessioninspace.Butafterthistime,therepresentationofspaceandthedescriptionoftheexternalworldgraduallyceasedtobetheprincipalobjectiveofartists.Workingonaflatsurface--suchasacanvasorascroll--anartistfacesthechallengeofcreatingtheillusionofthree-dimensionalformsonatwo-dimensionalsurface.ThisisaproblemforwhichartistsbothintheEastandtheWestfoundsolutions,buttheirsolutionswereverydifferent.Europeanpaintingafterthe15thcenturytendedtotreatapaintingasthoughthecanvaswereawindowthroughwhichanillusionisticthree-dimensionalscenecouldbeviewed;Chinesepaintingcreatedtheexperienceofspacebymeansofamovingperspectivethatallowedtheviewer'seyetoexplorethepictorialspacefromashiftingvantagepoint,sothat,inthecaseofalonghandscrollsuchasthosechroniclinganemperor'sjourney,spaceisexperiencedthroughthecontinuousunrollingofthework. EuropeanApproachestoRepresentingSpace IntheWest,inGreco-RomantimesandagainintheRenaissance,artistscreatedtheillusionofspatialdepthonaflatsurfacethroughtheuseoflinearperspective,whichmeantthatimpliedparallellinesweredrawntointersectatanimaginarypointonthehorizoncalledthe"vanishingpoint,"andallformswererenderedinscaleandpositionedtocorrespondtotheseguidinglines.Asaresult,thereisakindofgeometriclogictothecompositioninWesternpainting,andtheviewingframe(whichcanbeseenallatonce,unlikeinaChinesehandscrollpainting)wasexperiencedasakindof"window"ontoanotherworld.[Seeanetchingthatuseslinearperspective,bythe18th-centuryItalianartist GiovanniBattistaPiranesi,onTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.] PictorialspaceinChinesepaintingisdefinedsomewhatdifferentlyfromtheforeground,middleground,andbackgroundtypicallyfoundintraditionalWesternpainting.InScrollThreeoftheKangxiInspectionTourseries,threedistinctclassificationsofpictorialspace,asdefinedbythe11th-centuryartistGuoXi,canbeseenintheartist'streatmentofthemountains:"Fromthebottomofthemountainlookinguptowardthetop,thisiscalled'highdistance'(gaoyuan).Fromthefrontofthemountainpeeringintothebackofthemountain,thisiscalled'deepdistance'(shenyuan).Fromanearbymountainlookingpastdistantmountains,thisiscalled'leveldistance'(pingyuan)." --FromGuoXiandGuoSi,Linquangaozhi(LoftyAmbitionsinForestsandStreams),inYuJianhua,ed.,Zhongguohualunleibian(CompendiumofessaysonChinesepaintings) ChineseApproachestoRepresentingSpace Chineseartists'approachtotheproblemofrepresentingspatialdepthonaflatsurfaceisquitedifferentfromthatoftheirWesterncounterparts.Infact,theveryformatsthatareusedinChinesepainting--particularlythelonghandscroll--haveanimpactonhowpictorialspaceitselfisconceptualizedintheChinesepaintingtradition.Imagineunrollingascrollpainting,forinstance,fromrighttoleftasonewouldinviewingaChinesepainting.Thescrollmaybeaslong60,70,oreven80feet,soitisimpossibletoseemuchmorethanasmallsectionoftheentirepaintingatonce.Andinfact,theworkwasnotmeanttobeseenallatonce.UnlikeatraditionalWesternpainting,whichiscontainedwithinadistinctframe,apaintingonalongscrollthathastobeunrolledsectionbysectionwouldnotmakesensevisuallyifitwerecomposedwithatechniquesuchaslinearperspective,whichdependsontheuseofasingle,fixedvanishingpoint.Inalongscroll,theviewercontrolstheboundariesoftheviewingframeatanysinglemoment,andthepictorialspaceunfoldsastheviewerunrollsthescroll.Inthisway,thehandscrollformatrequiresthatthepictorialspaceremainfluid.AsintraditionalWesterncompositions,thereisaforeground,amiddleground,andafardistance,buttheartistcontinuouslyshiftsthefocusofthecompositionsothattheviewer'sapparentvantagepointisconstantlychanging,enablinghimorhertoeasilynavigatethepictorialspaceunhinderedbytheconstraintsofafixedvanishingpoint. |backtotop|   INFLUENCEOFEUROPEANARTISTICSTYLESONCHINESEPAINTING Beginninginthelate16thandearly17thcenturies,EuropeanJesuitmissionariesbegantoenterChinaandserveattheimperialcourt.Manyofthesemissionaries broughtengravings,illustratedbooks,andpaintingswiththemanditwasthroughthesevisualmaterialsthat ChinesewerefirstintroducedtoWesternlinearperspectiveandtheuseofshadingtomodelformsasiftheywereilluminatedbyasinglelightsource(called"chiaroscuro,"anItalianwordliterallymeaning"light-dark").[Seeacharcoaldrawingthatuseschiaroscuroshading,bythe15th-centuryItalianartistLeonardodaVinci,onTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.]TheChinesewereimpressedwiththeEuropeans'techniquesforcreatingtheillusionofrecessiononaflatpictorialsurface.Thiswasparticularlytrueincourtcircles,whereemperorsquicklyrealizedtheextenttowhichthisnewstyleofpaintingcouldservewelltocommemorateanddocumenttheiractivitiesinawaythatwouldbeallthemorepowerfulandconvincingbecauseofitsrealism.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatevenas"realistic"paintingintheEuropeanstylewasverymuchinvogueattheQingcourt,whereitwasappreciatedforitsdocumentaryvalue,itwasneverregardedas"highart."Chinesearthadlongmovedawayfromarepresentationalstyletoonethatprivilegedthepersonalexpressionoftheindividualartistovertherepresentationofexternalappearancesofnature. ComparingtheKangxiandQianlongTourScrolls:TheInfluenceofGiuseppeCastiglioneandtheEuropeanStyle OneJesuitartistinparticular,GiuseppeCastiglione(1688-1766)--whoservedunderthreeQingemperors(includingtheKangxiEmperorandhisgrandson,theQianlongEmperor)andevenhadaChinesename,LangShining--hadamajorimpactondocumentarypaintingattheQingcourt.TheQianlongEmperor'sSouthernInspectionTourscrollswerenotpaintedbyCastiglione,buttheinfluenceofhisstyleisclearlyevidentandbecomesespeciallysalientwhentheQianlongEmperor'stourscrollsarecomparedtotheKangxiEmperor'stourscrolls,whichwerepaintedabout70yearsearlier.     ComparingTreatmentofFiguresbyWangHui(L)andXuYang(R),fromTheKangxiEmperor'sSouthernInspectionTour,ScrollSevenandTheQianlongEmperor'sSouthernInspectionTour,ScrollSix TheQianlongEmperor'stourscrollswerebegunin1764bythecourtartistXuYang (act.ca.1750-after1776),whowasverymuchinfluencedbytheEuropeantraditionsofperspectiveandfiguralrepresentation.WangHui,whobegantheKangxiEmperor'stourscrollsin1691,wasoneoftheforemostpaintersoftheOrthodoxSchool,whosemembersdedicatedthemselvestothepreservationofChinesetraditionalculturebyreturningtothecarefulstudyofacanonofearlierChinesemasters.Thus,itisnotsurprisingtocomparethetwosetsofscrollsandfindthattheydifferradicallyintheirapproachtotherepresentationofspaceandthetreatmentoffigures.Atellingexampleisthecomparisonoftwospecificscrolls,theseventhscrollintheKangxiEmperor'stourseriesandthesixthscrollintheQianlongEmperor'stourseries,whichbothfeaturetheGrandCanalandthecityofSuzhou. IntheKangxiscroll,WangHui'sfiguresarepaintedinastylized,almostcartoon-likestylethatgivesthematremendousamountofbuoyancyandexpressiveenergy.ThefiguresintheQianlongscroll,ontheotherhand,arehandledinamoreEuropeanstyleandareanatomicallymoreaccurate,buttheylookstiffandposed,asthoughtheyarefrozeninspaceandtime.XuYang'sfiguresaremorethree-dimensionalintheirrepresentation,andthereforemore"realistic"thantheircounterpartsbyWangHui,but,paradoxically,theyactuallyseemtohavelessanimationandlifethanWangHui'sfigures. Acomparisonofthetwoartists'approachestotherepresentationofspaceinthetourscrollsrevealsthelimitationsoftranslatingtheEuropeanstyletotheChinesescrollformat.InfluencedbytheWesterntechniqueoflinearperspective,XuYangstrivesinthesixthQianlongscrolltomaintainaconsistentvantagepointinhisrepresentationsoftheGrandCanalandtherouteoftheQianlongEmperorintoSuzhou.TheCanalispresentedasthoughtheviewerwerealwayslookingfromtheeasttowardthewest.Butinordertomaintaintheconsistencyofthisviewpoint,XuYanghadtopresentTigerHill,oneofthescenichighlightsonthislegofthetourroute,fromthebackratherthanfromthefront,whichwouldhavebeenitscharacteristicandthus,morerecognizable,view.IntheseventhKangxiscroll,ontheotherhand,WangHuihadnoproblemreorientingthemountaintopresentitfromitsmorecharacteristicfrontalview,whichispreciselythewayaChinesemapmakerwouldvisualizeamountain.XuYang,intryingtomaintainaconsistentreferencepointbasedonlinearperspective,couldnotreorientthemountainsuddenlyandshowitfromtheotherside.Soagain,aswiththetreatmentoffigures,thecommitmenttopictorialrealisminfactbecamealimitationtotheartistinsignificantways.ThoughtheEuropeanstyleaddedacertainkindofillusionaryrealismtothedepictionofQianlong'ssoutherninspectiontour,itcouldbearguedthatitalsodetractedfromoneofthemostimportantfunctionsofthesescrollsashistoricaldocuments,whichwastohighlightthesignificanceoftheemperor'svisittoimportantsites(suchasTigerHillandtheGrandCanal).[INTERACTIVE:SeeadetailedcomparisonofWangHuiandXuYang'sapproachestotherepresentationofspaceintheinspectiontourscrolls.] |backtotop|   CHINESEARTINEUROPE:PORCELAIN   Ewer,sampleofChineseexportporcelainfortheEuropeanmarket,ca.1715-25 Hard-pasteporcelain ©TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt OneofthemostimportantChineseexportstoEuropeinthe17thcenturywasporcelain,whichhadbeeninventedinChinaabout1,000yearsearlier.AsEuropeandemandforChineseporcelaingrew(inpartbecauseEuropeanceramiccentersatthistimedidnotpossessthetechnicalknowledgerequiredtomanufactureporcelain),porcelainfromChina,andlaterJapan,wasbythe1630sfloodingtheEuropemarket.TheDutchalonewereimportingmorethanonemillionpiecesperyear.Butinthe1680s,theKangxiEmperorreassertedimperialcontroloverthekilnsatJingdezheninJiangxi(anarearenownedforhavingthefinestclayandforproducingporcelainfitforanemperor),andtheexportofChineseporcelaintoEuropecametoahaltforaperiodoftime.ThisinterruptioninsupplyledinparttorenewedattemptsatceramiccentersacrossEuropetounlockthe"secret"toChineseporcelain,whichdidhappeneventuallybutnotuntilearlyinthe18thcentury.PriortothistimeEuropeanscouldonlycopythelookofChineseporcelainmodelsandkeepworkingtoduplicatethetranslucentqualityofChineseporcelain. Todaytheterm"MadeinChina"hasgainedasomewhatnegativeconnotationassomethingthat'saninexpensiveimitationof"therealthing."Throughoutthe17thand18thcenturies,however,thesituationwasquitetheotherwayaroundwhenitcametoporcelain.TheEuropeanceramicscenterswerefarlesssophisticatedintheirmanufacturingtechniques,andChinesedecorativeartshadahugeinfluenceonEuropeantastesduringthistime. PorcelainProductioninChina ThemanufactureofporcelaininChinaevolvedovertimeintoahighlyspecializedsetofrelatedcraftsthattogetherformedanentireindustry.Therewerethosewhospecializedinminingkaolinclay,otherswhosespecialtywastomixtherawclaywithothermaterialstocreatetheparticularmixtureusedforporcelain,andstillotherswhoactuallyshapedtheobjects,otherswhofiredthem,andstillotherswhosespecialtyitwastopaintanddecoratethefinalpieces.Asdemandcontinuedtoincrease,porcelainproductioninChinabegantoresembleahighlyspecialized,mass-production-styleindustry.AcommonviewoftheindustrialrevolutionasitoccurredinEnglandinthe1750sisthattheburgeoningtextileindustrywasakeycontributortothecomplexinteractionofvarioussocioeconomicdevelopmentsthatledtothatphenomenon;mentionedlessoftenisthepossibilitythattheporcelainindustry,asitevolvedinChina,mayhavealsocontributedtothisdevelopment. |backtotop|