Chinese painting - Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12) | Britannica

The art of the Qing dynasty, even the painting of many of its finest eccentrics and the design of its best gardens, is similarly characterized both by ... Chinesepainting TableofContents IntroductionGeneralcharacteristicsAestheticcharacteristicsandartistictraditionsArtasareflectionofChineseclassstructureTheroleofcalligraphyinChineseartCharacteristicthemesandsymbolsCharacteristicsofpaintingFromtheShangdynastyto220ceZhoudynasty(1046–256bce)Qin(221–206bce)andHan(206bce–220ce)dynastiesFrom220to1206ceThreeKingdoms(220–280)andSixDynasties(220–589)Sui(581–618)andTang(618–907)dynastiesFiveDynasties(907–960)andTenKingdoms(902–978)LandscapepaintingFlowerpaintingSong(960–1279),Liao(907–1125),andJin(1115–1234)dynastiesFrom1206to1912Yuandynasty(1206–1368)Mingdynasty(1368–1644)Qingdynasty(1644–1911/12)Since1912PaintingandprintmakingPaintingattheturnofthe21stcentury FastFacts RelatedContent Media Images More MoreArticlesOnThisTopic AdditionalReading Contributors ArticleHistory Qingdynasty(1644–1911/12)TheManchuconquestdidnotproduceadislocationofChinesesocialandculturallifeinthesamewaytheMongolinvasionhaddone.Onthecontrary,evenbeforetheirconquest,theManchusbeganimitatingChineseways,andtheQingrulers,particularlyKangxi(1661–1722)andQianlong(1735–96),werewell-educatedmenwhowereeagertoenlistthesupportofChinesescholars.Theywereextremelyconservativeintheirpoliticalandculturalattitudes;inartistictaste,theirnativeloveofextravagance(whichtheChineseviewedasbarbarous)wastempered,ironically,byanequallystrongconservativepropensity.TheartoftheQingdynasty,eventhepaintingofmanyofitsfinesteccentricsandthedesignofitsbestgardens,issimilarlycharacterizedbothbylavishdecorationandornateeffectsaswellasbysuperbtechniqueandconservativetaste.Bythe19thcentury,however,China’sinternalweaknessandhumiliationbytheWesternpowerswerereflectedinagrowingstagnationofthearts.ThedualattractionoftheManchurulerstounbridleddecorationandtoorthodoxacademicismcharacterizedtheirpatronageatcourt.Inregardtotheformer,theyfavouredartistssuchasYuanJiang,who,inthereignofKangxi,combinedwithgreatdecorativeskillthemodelofGuoXiandthemannereddistortionsthathadcroppedupinthelateMing(1368–1644),partlyasaresultofMingartists’exposuretoanunfamiliarWesternart.MorethoroughlyWesternizedwork,highlyexoticfromtheAsianperspective,wasproducedbothbynativecourtartistssuchasJiaoBingzhen,whoappliedWesternperspectivetohisillustrationsofthetextGengzhitu(“RiceandSilkCulture”),whichwerereproducedanddistributedintheformofwoodengravingsin1696,andbytheItalianmissionaryGiuseppeCastiglione.Inthemid-18thcenturyCastiglioneproducedaSino-EuropeantechniquethathadconsiderableinfluenceoncourtartistssuchasZuoYigui,buthewasignoredbyliteraticritics.HisdepictionsofManchuhuntsandbattlesprovideavaluablevisualrecordofthetimes.Ontheotherhand,Manchuemperorssawtoitthatconservativeworksinthescholar-amateurstylebyWangHui,WangYuanqi,andotherfollowersofDongQichangwerealsowellrepresentedatcourt,largelyputtinganendtotheconflictatcourtbetweenprofessionalandamateurstylesthathadbeenintroducedintheSong(960–1279)andthatplayedasignificantroleintheMing.Inasense,theamateurstylewascrownedvictor,butitcameattheexpenseoftheamateurismthathaddefineditspurpose,giventheprominentroletheseartistsenjoyedatcourt.ThispoliticallyeffectiveaspectofManchupatronagewasnotnecessarilyaspecificallycalculatedstrategy;rather,itwasanaturalextensionoftheirconcertedattemptstocultivateandrecruitthescholarclassinordertoestablishtheirlegitimacy.TheQianlongemperorwasthemostenergeticofroyalartpatronssinceHuizongoftheSong,buildinganimperialcollectionofmorethan4,000pre-QingpaintingsandcalligraphyandcatalogingtheminsuccessiveeditionsoftheShiqubaoji.Theshortcomingsofhistaste,however,weredisplayedinhispreferenceforrecentforgeriesratherthantheoriginalsinhiscollection(notably,copiesofHuangGongwang’sDwellingintheFuchunMountainsandofFanKuan’sTravelersamongMountainsandStreams)andinhispropensityforcoveringhiscollectedmasterpieceswithmultipleimpressionsofcourtsealsandcalligraphicinscriptionsinamediocrehand.TheconservatismofQingperiodpaintingwasexemplifiedbytheSixMastersofthelate17thandtheearly18thcentury,includingtheso-called“FourWangs,”WuLi,andYunShouping.Intheworksofmostoftheseartistsandofthosewhofollowedtheirlead,compositionbecameroutinized,withlittleinthewayofvariationorgenredetailtoappealtotheimagination;fluencyofexecutioninbrushworkbecametheexclusivebasisforappreciation.WangShimin,whohadbeenapupilofDongQichang,retiredtoTaicangnearmodernShanghaiatthefalloftheMing,makingitthecentreofaschoolofscholarlylandscapepaintingthatincludedhisfriendWangJianandtheyoungerartistWangHui.WangHuiwasadazzlingprodigywhoselandscapesincludedsuccessfulforgeriesofBeiSongandYuanmastersandwhodidnothesitatetomarketthe“amateur”practice,bothamongfellowscholarsandattheManchucourt;however,thehardeningofhisstyleinhislateryearsforeshadowedthedeclineofQingliteratipaintingforlackofflexibleinnovation.Incontrast,WangShimin’sgrandson,WangYuanqi,wastheonlyoneofthesesixorthodoxmasterswhofullyliveduptoDongQichang’sinjunctiontotransformthestylesofpastmodelscreatively,ashedidinhistourdeforceWangRiverVilla,AfterWangWei(MetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYorkCity).Atcourt,WangYuanqirosetohighofficeundertheKangxiemperorandservedaschiefcompileroftheimperialpaintingandcalligraphycatalog,thePeiwenzhaiShuhuapu.WhiteCloudsoverXiaoandXiangWhiteCloudsoverXiaoandXiang,hangingscrollafterZhaoMengfubyWangJian,oneoftheSixMastersoftheearlyQingperiod,inkandcolouronpaper,1668;intheFreerGalleryofArt,Washington,D.C.CourtesyoftheSmithsonianInstitution,FreerGalleryofArt,Washington,D.C.ReceivingnopatronagefromtheManchucourtandleavingonlyaminorfollowingbeforethelatterhalfofthe19thcenturywasadifferentgroupofartists,nowfrequentlyreferredtoas“Individualists.”Collectively,theseartistsrepresentatriumphant,ifshort-lived,momentinthehistoryofliteratipainting,triggeredingoodpartbytheemotionallycatharticconquestofChinabytheManchus.TheysharedarejectionofManchupoliticalauthorityandthechoiceofaneremitic,oftenimpoverishedlifestylethatobligedthemtotradetheirworksfortheirsustenance,inspiteoftheirallegiancetoamateurideals.Stylistically,justliketheirmoreorthodoxcontemporaries,theyoftenrevealedtheinfluenceofDongQichang’ssystematizationofpaintingmethod;but,unlikethemoreconservativemasters,theypursuedanemotionalappealreflectiveoftheirowntemperaments.Forexample,GongXian,aNanjingartistwhosebuddingpoliticalcareerwascutshortbytheManchuconquest,usedrepetitiveformsandstrongtonalcontraststoconveyapervasivefeelingofrepressiveconstraint,lonelyisolation,andgloominhislandscapes(mostimpressiveishisThousandPeaksandMyriadRavinesintheRietbergMuseum,Zürich,Switzerland;C.A.DrenowatzCollection).HewasthemostprominentoftheartistswhocametobeknownastheEightMastersofNanjing.Thisgroupwasonlylooselyrelatedstylistically,thoughcontemporarypaintersfromNanjingdidsharesolidityofformderivedfromSongprototypesand,possibly,fromtheinfluenceofWesternart.FanQi:RiverLandscapeRiverLandscape,detailofahandscrollbyFanQi,oneoftheEightMastersofNanjing,17thcentury,Qingdynasty,inkandcolouronsilk;intheMuseumofAsianArt,oneoftheNationalMuseumsofBerlin,Germany.CourtesyofMuseumfürOstasiatischeKunst,StaatlicheMuseenzuBerlin-PreussischerKulturbesitzThelandscapesofKuncan(Shiqi),whobecameasomewhatmisanthropicabbotataBuddhistmonasterynearNanjing,alsoexpressafeelingofmelancholy.HisworksweretypicallyinspiredbythedenselytangledbrushworkofWangMengoftheYuan(exemplifiedbyhispaintingBao’enTemple,SumitomoCollection,Ōiso,Japan).AnotherIndividualistartisttojointheBuddhistrankswasHongren,exemplarofastylethataroseintheXin’anorHuizhoudistrictofsoutheasternAnhuiprovinceandthatdrewonthefamedlandscapeofthenearbyHuangMountains.ThegroupofartistsnowknownastheAnhuischool(includingDingYunpeng,XiaoYuncong,MeiQing,ZhaShibiao,andDaiBenxiao)mostlypursuedanemotionalextremeoppositefromGongXianandKuncan,aseverecoolnessbasedonthesparse,drylinearstyleoftheYuanartistNiZan.Howeverindividualistic,virtuallyalltheseartistsrevealtheinfluenceofDongQichang’scompositionalmeans.Inthe17thcentury,whentheAnhuistylebecamepopularamongwealthycollectorsintheareaofpresent-dayShanghai,propagatedinpartthroughwood-blockcatalogsillustratingAnhui’svauntedinkandpainting-paperproducts,ownershipofaHongrenpaintingbecamethemarkofaknowingconnoisseur.Twoartists,bothmembersofthedeposedanddecimatedMingroyalfamily,stoodoutamongtheseIndividualistmastersandleft,albeitbelatedlyrecognized,themostenduringlegacyofall.Knownbyasequenceofnames,perhapsdesignedtoprotecthisroyalidentity,ZhuDa,orBadaShanren,sufferedoratleastfeignedaperiodofmadnessandmutenessinthe1680s.Heemergedfromthiswithaneccentricstyleremarkableforitsfacilitywithextremes,alternatingbetweenawet-and-wildmannerandadry,withdrawnuseofbrushandink.Hispaintingsofgloweringbirdsandfishcastingstrangeandironicglances,aswellashisstructurallyinterwovenstudiesofrocksandvegetation,arevirtuallywithoutprecedentincomposition,althoughaspectsofboththeeccentricXuWeiandDongQichangarediscernibleinhiswork.Hisesotericinscriptionsrevealacontrolledintentratherthansheerlunacyandsuggestaknowledgeable,ifhardtounravel,commentaryonChina’scontemporarypredicament.ZhuDa’scousinDaojiwasraisedinsecretinaChanBuddhistcommunity.HetraveledwidelyasanadultinsuchvariedartisticregionsastheHuangMountainsdistrictofAnhuiprovinceandNanjingandfinallysettledinthenewlyprosperouscityofYangzhou,whereinhislateryearshepubliclyacknowledgedhisroyalidentity,renouncedhisBuddhiststatus,andengagedinprofessionalpractices.Hisworkhasafreshnessinspirednotbymastersofthepastbutbyanunfetteredimagination,withbrushtechniquesthatwerefreeandunconventionalandadaringuseofcolour.Inhisessay“Huayulu”(“CommentsonPainting”),heridiculedtraditionalism,writingthathisownmethodwas“nomethod”andinsistingthat,likenature,creativitywiththebrushmustbespontaneousandseamless,basedontheconceptofyihua,the“unifyingline.”Daoji’sextremestandinfavourofartisticindividualitystandsoutagainstthegrowingscholasticismofQingpaintingandwasaninspirationtotheartists,roughlygroupedtogetherasthe“EightEccentrics”(includingZhengXie,HuaYan,HuangShen,GaoFenghan,JinNong,andLuoPin),whowerepatronizedbytherichmerchantsinearly18th-centuryYangzhou.TheartofZhuDaandDaojiwasnotfirmlyenshrined,however,untilthelate19thcentury,whenanewindividualistthrustappearedinShanghaiinresponsetothechallengeofWesternculture.TheirinfluenceonChineseartsincethen,especiallyinthe20thcentury,wasprofound.Since1912PaintinginChina,aswithalltheartsofChinasince1912,hasreflectedtheeffectsofmodernization,theimpactofWesternart,andthepolitical,military,andeconomicstrugglesoftheperiod,includingthewarwithJapan(1937–45),thecivilwarthatendedintheestablishmentin1949ofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,andtherapideconomicchangesofthelate20thandearly21stcenturies. 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