Altruism - Wikipedia

Altruism is the principle and moral practice of concern for happiness of other human beings or other animals, resulting in a quality of life both material ... Altruism FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch "Otherism"redirectshere.Forthephilosophicalconcept,seeOther(philosophy). Fortheconceptinbehavioralecology,seeAltruism(biology).Fortheethicaldoctrine,seeAltruism(ethics). Principleorpracticeofconcernforthewelfareofothers Givingalmstothepoorisoftenconsideredanaltruisticaction. Altruismistheprincipleandmoralpracticeofconcernforhappinessofotherhumanbeingsorotheranimals,resultinginaqualityoflifebothmaterialandspiritual.Itisatraditionalvirtueinmanyculturesandacoreaspectofvariousreligiousandsecularworldviews.However,theobject(s)ofconcernvaryamongculturesandreligions.Inanextremecase,altruismmaybecomeasynonymofselflessness,whichistheoppositeofselfishness. Theword"altruism"waspopularized(andpossiblycoined)bytheFrenchphilosopherAugusteComteinFrench,asaltruisme,foranantonymofegoism.[1][2]HederiveditfromtheItalianaltrui,whichinturnwasderivedfromLatinalteri,meaning"otherpeople"or"somebodyelse".[3] Altruisminbiologicalobservationsinfieldpopulationsofthedayorganismsisanindividualperforminganactionwhichisatacosttothemselves(e.g.,pleasureandqualityoflife,time,probabilityofsurvivalorreproduction),butbenefits,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,anotherindividual,withouttheexpectationofreciprocityorcompensationforthataction.Steinbergsuggestsadefinitionforaltruismintheclinicalsetting,thatis"intentionalandvoluntaryactionsthataimtoenhancethewelfareofanotherpersonintheabsenceofanyquidproquoexternalrewards".[4]Inonesense,theoppositeofaltruismisspite;aspitefulactionharmsanotherwithnoself-benefit. Altruismcanbedistinguishedfromfeelingsofloyaltyorconcernforthecommongood.Thelatterarepredicateduponsocialrelationships,whilstaltruismdoesnotconsiderrelationships.Muchdebateexistsastowhether"true"altruismispossibleinhumanpsychology.Thetheoryofpsychologicalegoismsuggeststhatnoactofsharing,helpingorsacrificingcanbedescribedastrulyaltruistic,astheactormayreceiveanintrinsicrewardintheformofpersonalgratification.Thevalidityofthisargumentdependsonwhetherintrinsicrewardsqualifyas"benefits". Thetermaltruismmayalsorefertoanethicaldoctrinethatclaimsthatindividualsaremorallyobligedtobenefitothers.Usedinthissense,itisusuallycontrastedwithegoism,whichclaimsindividualsaremorallyobligatedtoservethemselvesfirst.Effectivealtruismistheuseofevidenceandreasontodeterminethemosteffectivewaystobenefitothers. Contents 1Thenotionofaltruism 2Scientificviewpoints 2.1Anthropology 2.2Evolutionaryexplanations 2.2.1Neurobiology 2.2.2Psychology 2.2.2.1Pathologicalaltruism 2.3Sociology 3Religiousviewpoints 3.1Buddhism 3.2Jainism 3.3Christianity 3.4Islam 3.5Judaism 3.6Sikhism 3.7Hinduism 4Philosophy 4.1Effectivealtruism 5Genetics 6DigitalAltruism 6.1TypesofDigitalAltruism 7Seealso 8Notes 9References 10Externallinks Thenotionofaltruism[edit] Theconcepthasalonghistoryinphilosophicalandethicalthought.Thetermwasoriginallycoinedinthe19thcenturybythefoundingsociologistandphilosopherofscience,AugusteComte,andhasbecomeamajortopicforpsychologists(especiallyevolutionarypsychologyresearchers),evolutionarybiologists,andethologists.Whilstideasaboutaltruismfromonefieldcanaffecttheotherfields,thedifferentmethodsandfocusesofthesefieldsalwaysleadtodifferentperspectivesonaltruism.Insimpleterms,altruismiscaringaboutthewelfareofotherpeopleandactingtohelpthem. Scientificviewpoints[edit] Anthropology[edit] Seealso:AlmsandAltruism(ethics) MarcelMauss'sessayTheGiftcontainsapassagecalled"Noteonalms".Thisnotedescribestheevolutionofthenotionofalms(andbyextensionofaltruism)fromthenotionofsacrifice.Init,hewrites: Almsarethefruitsofamoralnotionofthegiftandoffortuneontheonehand,andofanotionofsacrifice,ontheother.Generosityisanobligation,becauseNemesisavengesthepoorandthegodsforthesuperabundanceofhappinessandwealthofcertainpeoplewhoshouldridthemselvesofit.Thisistheancientmoralityofthegift,whichhasbecomeaprincipleofjustice.Thegodsandthespiritsacceptthattheshareofwealthandhappinessthathasbeenofferedtothemandhadbeenhithertodestroyedinuselesssacrificesshouldservethepoorandchildren. Evolutionaryexplanations[edit] Mainarticles:Altruism(biology),Altruisminanimals,Evolutionofmorality,andEvolutionaryethics Givingalmstobeggarchildren Inthescienceofethology(thestudyofanimalbehaviour),andmoregenerallyinthestudyofsocialevolution,altruismreferstobehaviourbyanindividualthatincreasesthefitnessofanotherindividualwhiledecreasingthefitnessoftheactor.[5]Inevolutionarypsychologythismaybeappliedtoawiderangeofhumanbehaviorssuchascharity,emergencyaid,helptocoalitionpartners,tipping,courtshipgifts,productionofpublicgoods,andenvironmentalism.[6] Theoriesofapparentlyaltruisticbehaviorwereacceleratedbytheneedtoproducetheoriescompatiblewithevolutionaryorigins.Tworelatedstrandsofresearchonaltruismhaveemergedfromtraditionalevolutionaryanalysesandfromevolutionarygametheoryamathematicalmodelandanalysisofbehaviouralstrategies. Someoftheproposedmechanismsare: Kinselection.[7]Thatanimalsandhumansaremorealtruistictowardsclosekinthantodistantkinandnon-kinhasbeenconfirmedinnumerousstudiesacrossmanydifferentcultures.Evensubtlecuesindicatingkinshipmayunconsciouslyincreasealtruisticbehavior.Onekinshipcueisfacialresemblance.Onestudyfoundthatslightlyalteringphotographssothattheymorecloselyresembledthefacesofstudyparticipantsincreasedthetrusttheparticipantsexpressedregardingdepictedpersons.Anothercueishavingthesamefamilyname,especiallyifrare,andthishasbeenfoundtoincreasehelpfulbehavior.Anotherstudyfoundmorecooperativebehaviorthegreaterthenumberofperceivedkininagroup.Usingkinshiptermsinpoliticalspeechesincreasedaudienceagreementwiththespeakerinonestudy.Thiseffectwasespeciallystrongforfirstborns,whoaretypicallyclosetotheirfamilies.[6] Vestedinterests.Peoplearelikelytosufferiftheirfriends,allies,andsimilarsocialingroupssufferorevendisappear.Helpingsuchgroupmembersmaythereforeeventuallybenefitthealtruist.Makingingroupmembershipmorenoticeableincreasescooperativeness.Extremeself-sacrificetowardstheingroupmaybeadaptiveifahostileoutgroupthreatenstokilltheentireingroup.[6] Reciprocalaltruism.[8]SeealsoReciprocity(evolution). Directreciprocity.[9]Researchshowsthatitcanbebeneficialtohelpothersifthereisachancethattheycanandwillreciprocatethehelp.Theeffectivetitfortatstrategyisonegametheoreticexample.Manypeopleseemtobefollowingasimilarstrategybycooperatingifandonlyifotherscooperateinreturn.[6] Oneconsequenceisthatpeoplearemorecooperativeifitismorelikelythatindividualswillinteractagaininthefuture.Peopletendtobelesscooperativeiftheyperceivethatthefrequencyofhelpersinthepopulationislower.Theytendtohelplessiftheyseenon-cooperativenessbyothersandthiseffecttendtobestrongerthantheoppositeeffectofseeingcooperativebehaviors.Simplychangingthecooperativeframingofaproposalmayincreasecooperativenesssuchascallingita"CommunityGame"insteadofa"WallStreetGame".[6] Atendencytowardsreciprocityimpliesthatpeoplewillfeelobligatedtorespondifsomeonehelpsthem.Thishasbeenusedbycharitiesthatgivesmallgiftstopotentialdonorshopingtherebytoinducereciprocity.Anothermethodistoannouncepubliclythatsomeonehasgivenalargedonation.Thetendencytoreciprocatecanevengeneralizesopeoplebecomemorehelpfultowardothersingeneralafterbeinghelped.Ontheotherhand,peoplewillavoidorevenretaliateagainstthoseperceivednottobecooperating.Peoplesometimesmistakenlyfailtohelpwhentheyintendedto,ortheirhelpingmaynotbenoticed,whichmaycauseunintendedconflicts.Assuch,itmaybeanoptimalstrategytobeslightlyforgivingofandhaveaslightlygenerousinterpretationofnon-cooperation.[6] Peoplearemorelikelytocooperateonataskiftheycancommunicatewithoneanotherfirst.Thismaybeduetobetterassessmentsofcooperativenessorduetoexchangeofpromises.Theyaremorecooperativeiftheycangraduallybuildtrust,insteadofbeingaskedtogiveextensivehelpimmediately.Directreciprocityandcooperationinagroupcanbeincreasedbychangingthefocusandincentivesfromintra-groupcompetitiontolargerscalecompetitionssuchasbetweengroupsoragainstthegeneralpopulation.Thus,givinggradesandpromotionsbasedonlyonanindividual'sperformancerelativetoasmalllocalgroup,asiscommon,mayreducecooperativebehaviorsinthegroup.[6] Indirectreciprocity.[10]Theavoidanceofpoorreciprocatorsandcheaterscausesaperson'sreputationtobecomeveryimportant.Apersonwithagoodreputationforreciprocityhasahigherchanceofreceivinghelpevenfrompersonstheyhavehadnodirectinteractionswithpreviously.[6] Strongreciprocity.[11]Aformofreciprocitywheresomeindividualsseemtospendmoreresourcesoncooperatingandpunishingthanwouldbemostbeneficialaspredictedbyseveralestablishedtheoriesofaltruism.Anumberoftheorieshavebeenproposedasexplanationsaswellascriticismsregardingitsexistence. Pseudo-reciprocity.[12]Anorganismbehavesaltruisticallyandtherecipientdoesnotreciprocatebuthasanincreasedchanceofactinginawaythatisselfishbutalsoasabyproductbenefitsthealtruist. Costlysignalingandthehandicapprinciple.[13]Sincealtruismtakesawayresourcesfromthealtruistitcanbean"honestsignal"ofresourceavailabilityandtheabilitiesneededtogatherresources.Thismaysignaltoothersthatthealtruistisavaluablepotentialpartner.Itmayalsobeasignalofinteractiveandcooperativeintentionssincethosenotinteractingfurtherinthefuturegainnothingfromthecostlysignaling.Itisunclearifcostlysignalingcanindicatealong-termcooperativepersonalitybutpeoplehaveincreasedtrustforthosewhohelp.Costlysignalingispointlessifeveryonehasthesametraits,resources,andcooperativeintentionsbutbecomeapotentiallymoreimportantsignalifthepopulationincreasinglyvariesonthesecharacteristics.[6] Hunterswidelysharingthemeathasbeenseenasacostlysignalofabilityandresearchhasfoundthatgoodhuntershavehigherreproductivesuccessandmoreadulterousrelationseveniftheythemselvesreceivenomoreofthehuntedmeatthananyoneelse.Similarly,holdinglargefeastsandgivinglargedonationshasbeenseenaswaysofdemonstratingone'sresources.Heroicrisk-takinghasalsobeeninterpretedasacostlysignalofability.[6] VolunteersassistHurricanevictimsattheHoustonAstrodome,followingHurricaneKatrina. Bothindirectreciprocityandcostlysignalingdependonthevalueofreputationandtendtomakesimilarpredictions.Oneisthatpeoplewillbemorehelpingwhentheyknowthattheirhelpingbehaviorwillbecommunicatedtopeopletheywillinteractwithlater,ispubliclyannounced,isdiscussed,orissimplybeingobservedbysomeoneelse.Thishavebeendocumentedinmanystudies.Theeffectissensitivetosubtlecuessuchaspeoplebeingmorehelpfulwhentherewerestylizedeyespotsinsteadofalogoonacomputerscreen.Weakreputationalcuessuchaseyespotsmaybecomeunimportantiftherearestrongercuespresentandmaylosetheireffectwithcontinuedexposureunlessreinforcedwithrealreputationaleffects.[6]Publicdisplayssuchaspublicweepingfordeadcelebritiesandparticipationindemonstrationsmaybeinfluencedbyadesiretobeseenasaltruistic.Peoplewhoknowthattheyarepubliclymonitoredsometimesevenwastefullydonatemoneytheyknowarenotneededbyrecipientwhichmaybebecauseofreputationalconcerns.[14] Womenhavebeenfoundtofindaltruisticmentobeattractivepartners.Whenlookingforalong-termpartner,altruismmaybeapreferredtraitasitmayindicatethatheisalsowillingtoshareresourceswithherandherchildren.Ithasbeenshownthatmenperformaltruisticactsintheearlystagesofaromanticrelationshiporsimplywheninthepresenceofanattractivewoman.Whilebothsexesstatethatkindnessisthemostpreferabletraitinapartnerthereissomeevidencethatmenplacelessvalueonthisthanwomenandthatwomenmaynotbemorealtruisticinpresenceofanattractiveman.Menmayevenavoidaltruisticwomeninshort-termrelationshipswhichmaybebecausetheyexpectlesssuccess.[6][14] Peoplemaycompeteforsocialbenefitfromaburnishedreputation,whichmaycausecompetitivealtruism.Ontheotherhand,insomeexperimentsaproportionofpeopledonotseemtocareaboutreputationandtheydonothelpmoreevenifthisisconspicuous.Thismaypossiblybeduetoreasonssuchaspsychopathyorthattheyaresoattractivethattheyneednotbeseentobealtruistic.Thereputationalbenefitsofaltruismoccurinthefutureascomparedtotheimmediatecostsofaltruisminthepresent.Whilehumansandotherorganismsgenerallyplacelessvalueonfuturecosts/benefitsascomparedtothoseinthepresent,somehaveshortertimehorizonsthanothersandthesepeopletendtobelesscooperative.[6] Explicitextrinsicrewardsandpunishmentshavebeenfoundtosometimesactuallyhavetheoppositeeffectonbehaviorscomparedtointrinsicrewards.Thismaybebecausesuchextrinsic,top-downincentivesmayreplace(partiallyorinwhole)intrinsicandreputationalincentives,motivatingthepersontofocusonobtainingtheextrinsicrewards,whichoverallmaymakethebehaviorslessdesirable.Anothereffectisthatpeoplewouldlikealtruismtobeduetoapersonalitycharacteristicratherthanduetoovertreputationalconcernsandsimplypointingoutthattherearereputationalbenefitsofanactionmayactuallyreducethem.Thismaypossiblybeusedasderogatorytacticagainstaltruists,especiallybythosewhoarenon-cooperators.Acounterargumentisthatdoinggoodduetoreputationalconcernsisbetterthandoingnogoodatall.[6] Groupselection.IthascontroversiallybeenarguedbysomeevolutionaryscientistssuchasDavidSloanWilsonthatnaturalselectioncanactatthelevelofnon-kingroupstoproduceadaptationsthatbenefitanon-kingroupeveniftheseadaptationsaredetrimentalattheindividuallevel.Thus,whilealtruisticpersonsmayundersomecircumstancesbeoutcompetedbylessaltruisticpersonsattheindividuallevel,accordingtogroupselectiontheorytheoppositemayoccuratthegrouplevelwheregroupsconsistingofthemorealtruisticpersonsmayoutcompetegroupsconsistingofthelessaltruisticpersons.Suchaltruismmayonlyextendtoingroupmemberswhiletheremayinsteadprejudiceandantagonismagainstoutgroupmembers(Seealsoin-groupfavoritism).Groupselectiontheoryhasbeencriticizedbymanyotherevolutionaryscientists.[15][16] HelpingthehomelessinNewYorkCity Suchexplanationsdonotimplythathumansarealwaysconsciouslycalculatinghowtoincreasetheirinclusivefitnesswhentheyaredoingaltruisticacts.Instead,evolutionhasshapedpsychologicalmechanisms,suchasemotions,thatpromotealtruisticbehaviors.[6] Everysingleinstanceofaltruisticbehaviorneednotalwaysincreaseinclusivefitness;altruisticbehaviorswouldhavebeenselectedforifsuchbehaviorsonaverageincreasedinclusivefitnessintheancestralenvironment.Thisneednotimplythatonaverage50%ormoreofaltruisticactswerebeneficialforthealtruistintheancestralenvironment;ifthebenefitsfromhelpingtherightpersonwereveryhighitwouldbebeneficialtoerronthesideofcautionandusuallybealtruisticevenifinmostcasestherewerenobenefits.[6] Thebenefitsforthealtruistmaybeincreasedandthecostsreducedbybeingmorealtruistictowardscertaingroups.Researchhasfoundthatpeoplearemorealtruistictokinthantono-kin,tofriendsthantostrangers,tothoseattractivethantothoseunattractive,tonon-competitorsthantocompetitors,andtomembersingroupsthantomembersofoutgroup.[6] ThestudyofaltruismwastheinitialimpetusbehindGeorgeR.Price'sdevelopmentofthePriceequation,whichisamathematicalequationusedtostudygeneticevolution.Aninterestingexampleofaltruismisfoundinthecellularslimemoulds,suchasDictyosteliummucoroides.Theseprotistsliveasindividualamoebaeuntilstarved,atwhichpointtheyaggregateandformamulticellularfruitingbodyinwhichsomecellssacrificethemselvestopromotethesurvivalofothercellsinthefruitingbody. Selectiveinvestmenttheoryproposesthatclosesocialbonds,andassociatedemotional,cognitive,andneurohormonalmechanisms,evolvedinordertofacilitatelong-term,high-costaltruismbetweenthosecloselydependingononeanotherforsurvivalandreproductivesuccess.[17] Suchcooperativebehaviorshavesometimesbeenseenasargumentsforleft-wingpoliticssuchbytheRussianzoologistandanarchistPeterKropotkininhis1902bookMutualAid:AFactorofEvolutionandMoralPhilosopherPeterSingerinhisbookADarwinianLeft. Neurobiology[edit] JorgeMollandJordanGrafman,neuroscientistsattheNationalInstitutesofHealthandLABS-D'OrHospitalNetwork(J.M.)providedthefirstevidencefortheneuralbasesofaltruisticgivinginnormalhealthyvolunteers,usingfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging.Intheirresearch,publishedintheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesUSAinOctober2006,[18]theyshowedthatbothpuremonetaryrewardsandcharitabledonationsactivatedthemesolimbicrewardpathway,aprimitivepartofthebrainthatusuallyrespondstofoodandsex.However,whenvolunteersgenerouslyplacedtheinterestsofothersbeforetheirownbymakingcharitabledonations,anotherbraincircuitwasselectivelyactivated:thesubgenualcortex/septalregion.Thesestructuresareintimatelyrelatedtosocialattachmentandbondinginotherspecies.Altruism,theexperimentsuggested,wasnotasuperiormoralfacultythatsuppressesbasicselfishurgesbutratherwasbasictothebrain,hard-wiredandpleasurable.[19]Onebrainregion,thesubgenualanteriorcingulatecortex/basalforebrain,contributestolearningaltruisticbehavior,especiallyinthosewithtraitempathy.[20]Thesamestudyhasshownaconnectionbetweengivingtocharityandthepromotionofsocialbonding.[21] Infact,inanexperimentpublishedinMarch2007attheUniversityofSouthernCalifornianeuroscientistAntonioR.Damasioandhiscolleaguesshowedthatsubjectswithdamagetotheventromedialprefrontalcortexlacktheabilitytoempathicallyfeeltheirwaytomoralanswers,andthatwhenconfrontedwithmoraldilemmas,thesebrain-damagedpatientscoldlycameupwith"end-justifies-the-means"answers,leadingDamasiotoconcludethatthepointwasnotthattheyreachedimmoralconclusions,butthatwhentheywereconfrontedbyadifficultissue–inthiscaseaswhethertoshootdownapassengerplanehijackedbyterroristsbeforeithitsamajorcity–thesepatientsappeartoreachdecisionswithouttheanguishthatafflictsthosewithnormallyfunctioningbrains.AccordingtoAdrianRaine,aclinicalneuroscientistalsoattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia,oneofthisstudy'simplicationsisthatsocietymayhavetorethinkhowitjudgesimmoralpeople:"Psychopathsoftenfeelnoempathyorremorse.Withoutthatawareness,peoplerelyingexclusivelyonreasoningseemtofindithardertosorttheirwaythroughmoralthickets.Doesthatmeantheyshouldbeheldtodifferentstandardsofaccountability?"[19] Inanotherstudy,inthe1990s,Dr.BillHarbaugh,aUniversityofOregoneconomist,concludedpeoplearemotivatedtogiveforreasonsofpersonalprestigeandinasimilarfMRIscannertestin2007withhispsychologistcolleagueDr.UlrichMayr,reachedthesameconclusionsofJorgeMollandJordanGrafmanaboutgivingtocharity,althoughtheywereabletodividethestudygroupintotwogroups:"egoists"and"altruists".Oneoftheirdiscoverieswasthat,thoughrarely,evensomeoftheconsidered"egoists"sometimesgavemorethanexpectedbecausethatwouldhelpothers,leadingtotheconclusionthatthereareotherfactorsincauseincharity,suchasaperson'senvironmentandvalues.[21] Psychology[edit] TheInternationalEncyclopediaoftheSocialSciencesdefinespsychologicalaltruismas"amotivationalstatewiththegoalofincreasinganother'swelfare".Psychologicalaltruismiscontrastedwithpsychologicalegoism,whichreferstothemotivationtoincreaseone'sownwelfare.[22] Therehasbeensomedebateonwhetherornothumansaretrulycapableofpsychologicalaltruism.[23]Somedefinitionsspecifyaself-sacrificialnaturetoaltruismandalackofexternalrewardsforaltruisticbehaviors.[24]However,becausealtruismultimatelybenefitstheselfinmanycases,theselflessnessofaltruisticactsisbroughttoquestion.Thesocialexchangetheorypostulatesthataltruismonlyexistswhenbenefitstotheselfoutweighcoststotheself.[25]DanielBatsonisapsychologistwhoexaminedthisquestionandarguesagainstthesocialexchangetheory.Heidentifiedfourmajormotives:toultimatelybenefittheself(egoism),toultimatelybenefittheotherperson(altruism),tobenefitagroup(collectivism),ortoupholdamoralprinciple(principlism).Altruismthatultimatelyservesselfishgainsisthusdifferentiatedfromselflessaltruism,butthegeneralconclusionhasbeenthatempathy-inducedaltruismcanbegenuinelyselfless.[26]Theempathy-altruismhypothesisbasicallystatesthatpsychologicalaltruismdoesexistandisevokedbytheempathicdesiretohelpsomeonewhoissuffering.Feelingsofempathicconcernarecontrastedwithfeelingsofpersonaldistress,whichcompelpeopletoreducetheirownunpleasantemotionsandincreasetheirownpositiveonesthroughhelpingsomeoneinneed.Empathyisthusnotselfless,sincealtruismworkseitherasthewaytoavoidthosenegative,unpleasantfeelingsandhavepositive,pleasantfeelingstriggeredbyothers'needforhelp,orasthewaytoincentivethegainofsocialrewardorthroughfeartoavoidsocialpunishmentbyhelping.Peoplewithempathicconcernhelpothersindistressevenwhenexposuretothesituationcouldbeeasilyavoided,whereasthoselackinginempathicconcernavoidhelpingunlessitisdifficultorimpossibletoavoidexposuretoanother'ssuffering.[22]Helpingbehaviorisseeninhumansatabouttwoyearsold,whenatoddleriscapableofunderstandingsubtleemotionalcues.[27] PeaceCorpstraineesswearinginasvolunteersinCambodia,4April2007 Inpsychologicalresearchonaltruism,studiesoftenobservealtruismasdemonstratedthroughprosocialbehaviorssuchashelping,comforting,sharing,cooperation,philanthropy,andcommunityservice.[24]Researchhasfoundthatpeoplearemostlikelytohelpiftheyrecognizethatapersonisinneedandfeelpersonalresponsibilityforreducingtheperson'sdistress.Researchalsosuggeststhatthenumberofbystanderswitnessingdistressorsufferingaffectsthelikelihoodofhelping(theBystandereffect).Greaternumbersofbystandersdecreaseindividualfeelingsofresponsibility.[22][28]However,awitnesswithahighlevelofempathicconcernislikelytoassumepersonalresponsibilityentirelyregardlessofthenumberofbystanders.[22] Manystudieshaveobservedtheeffectsofvolunteerism(asaformofaltruism)onhappinessandhealthandhaveconsistentlyfoundastrongconnectionbetweenvolunteerismandcurrentandfuturehealthandwell-being.[29][30]Inastudyofolderadults,thosewhovolunteeredwerehigheronlifesatisfactionandwilltolive,andlowerindepression,anxiety,andsomatization.[31]Volunteerismandhelpingbehaviorhavenotonlybeenshowntoimprovementalhealth,butphysicalhealthandlongevityaswell,attributabletotheactivityandsocialintegrationitencourages.[29][32][33][34]Onestudyexaminedthephysicalhealthofmotherswhovolunteeredovera30-yearperiodandfoundthat52%ofthosewhodidnotbelongtoavolunteerorganizationexperiencedamajorillnesswhileonly36%ofthosewhodidvolunteerexperiencedone.[35]Astudyonadultsages55+foundthatduringthefour-yearstudyperiod,peoplewhovolunteeredfortwoormoreorganizationshada63%lowerlikelihoodofdying.Aftercontrollingforpriorhealthstatus,itwasdeterminedthatvolunteerismaccountedfora44%reductioninmortality.[36]Merelybeingawareofkindnessinoneselfandothersisalsoassociatedwithgreaterwell-being.Astudythataskedparticipantstocounteachactofkindnesstheyperformedforoneweeksignificantlyenhancedtheirsubjectivehappiness.[37]Itisimportanttonotethat,whileresearchsupportstheideathataltruisticactsbringabouthappiness,ithasalsobeenfoundtoworkintheoppositedirection—thathappierpeoplearealsokinder.Therelationshipbetweenaltruisticbehaviorandhappinessisbidirectional.Studieshavefoundthatgenerosityincreaseslinearlyfromsadtohappyaffectivestates.[38] Studieshavealsobeencarefultonotethatfeelingover-taxedbytheneedsofothershasconverselynegativeeffectsonhealthandhappiness.[34]Forexample,onestudyonvolunteerismfoundthatfeelingoverwhelmedbyothers'demandshadanevenstrongernegativeeffectonmentalhealththanhelpinghadapositiveone(althoughpositiveeffectswerestillsignificant).[39]Additionally,whilegenerousactsmakepeoplefeelgoodaboutthemselves,itisalsoimportantforpeopletoappreciatethekindnesstheyreceivefromothers.Studiessuggestthatgratitudegoeshand-in-handwithkindnessandisalsoveryimportantforourwell-being.Astudyontherelationshiphappinesstovariouscharacterstrengthsshowedthat"aconsciousfocusongratitudeledtoreductionsinnegativeaffectandincreasesinoptimisticappraisals,positiveaffect,offeringemotionalsupport,sleepquality,andwell-being".[40] Pathologicalaltruism[edit] Pathologicalaltruismiswhenaltruismistakentoanunhealthyextreme,andeitherharmsthealtruisticperson,orwell-intentionedactionscausemoreharmthangood. Theterm"pathologicalaltruism"waspopularisedbythebookPathologicalAltruism. Examplesincludedepressionandburnoutseeninhealthcareprofessionals,anunhealthyfocusonotherstothedetrimentofone'sownneeds,hoardingofanimals,andineffectivephilanthropicandsocialprogramsthatultimatelyworsenthesituationstheyaremeanttoaid.[41] Sociology[edit] Seealso:Publicsociology "Sociologistshavelongbeenconcernedwithhowtobuildthegoodsociety"("Altruism,Morality,andSocialSolidarity".AmericanSociologicalAssociation.[42]).Thestructureofoursocietiesandhowindividualscometoexhibitcharitable,philanthropic,andotherpro-social,altruisticactionsforthecommongoodisalargelyresearchedtopicwithinthefield.TheAmericanSociologyAssociation(ASA)acknowledgespublicsociologysaying,"Theintrinsicscientific,policy,andpublicrelevanceofthisfieldofinvestigationinhelpingtoconstruct'goodsocieties'isunquestionable"("Altruism,Morality,andSocialSolidarity"ASA).Thistypeofsociologyseekscontributionsthataidgrassrootsandtheoreticalunderstandingsofwhatmotivatesaltruismandhowitisorganized,andpromotesanaltruisticfocusinordertobenefittheworldandpeopleitstudies.Howaltruismisframed,organized,carriedout,andwhatmotivatesitatthegrouplevelisanareaoffocusthatsociologistsseektoinvestigateinordertocontributebacktothegroupsitstudiesand"buildthegoodsociety".Themotivationofaltruismisalsothefocusofstudy;somepublicationslinktheoccurrenceofmoraloutragetothepunishmentofperpetratorsandcompensationofvictims.[43]Studieshaveshownthatgenerosityinlaboratoryandinonlineexperimentsiscontagious–peopleimitateobservedgenerosityofothers.[44][45] Religiousviewpoints[edit] Seealso:Evolutionaryoriginofreligions Most,ifnotall,oftheworld'sreligionspromotealtruismasaveryimportantmoralvalue.Buddhism,Christianity,Hinduism,Islam,Jainism,Judaism,andSikhism,etc.,placeparticularemphasisonaltruisticmorality. Buddhism[edit] Monkscollectingalms AltruismfiguresprominentlyinBuddhism.LoveandcompassionarecomponentsofallformsofBuddhism,andarefocusedonallbeingsequally:loveisthewishthatallbeingsbehappy,andcompassionisthewishthatallbeingsbefreefromsuffering."Manyillnessescanbecuredbytheonemedicineofloveandcompassion.Thesequalitiesaretheultimatesourceofhumanhappiness,andtheneedforthemliesattheverycoreofourbeing"(DalaiLama).[46] Still,thenotionofaltruismismodifiedinsuchaworld-view,sincethebeliefisthatsuchapracticepromotesourownhappiness:"Themorewecareforthehappinessofothers,thegreaterourownsenseofwell-beingbecomes"(DalaiLama[46]). Inthecontextoflargerethicaldiscussionsonmoralactionandjudgment,Buddhismischaracterizedbythebeliefthatnegative(unhappy)consequencesofouractionsderivenotfrompunishmentorcorrectionbasedonmoraljudgment,butfromthelawofkarma,whichfunctionslikeanaturallawofcauseandeffect.Asimpleillustrationofsuchcauseandeffectisthecaseofexperiencingtheeffectsofwhatonecauses:ifonecausessuffering,thenasanaturalconsequenceonewouldexperiencesuffering;ifonecauseshappiness,thenasanaturalconsequenceonewouldexperiencehappiness. Jainism[edit] Seealso:AhimsainJainism SculpturedepictingtheJainconceptofahimsa(non-injury) ThefundamentalprinciplesofJainismrevolvearoundtheconceptofaltruism,notonlyforhumansbutforallsentientbeings.JainismpreachestheviewofAhimsa–toliveandletlive,therebynotharmingsentientbeings,i.e.uncompromisingreverenceforalllife.Italsoconsidersalllivingthingstobeequal.ThefirstTirthankara,Rishabhdev,introducedtheconceptofaltruismforalllivingbeings,fromextendingknowledgeandexperiencetootherstodonation,givingoneselfupforothers,non-violenceandcompassionforalllivingthings. Jainismprescribesapathofnon-violencetoprogressthesoultothisultimategoal.AmajorcharacteristicofJainbeliefistheemphasisontheconsequencesofnotonlyphysicalbutalsomentalbehaviors.One'sunconqueredmindwithanger,pride(ego),deceit,greedanduncontrolledsenseorgansarethepowerfulenemiesofhumans.Angerspoilsgoodrelations,pridedestroyshumility,deceitdestroyspeaceandgreeddestroyseverything.Jainismrecommendsconqueringangerbyforgiveness,pridebyhumility,deceitbystraightforwardnessandgreedbycontentment. Jainsbelievethattoattainenlightenmentandultimatelyliberation,onemustpracticethefollowingethicalprinciples(majorvows)inthought,speechandaction.Thedegreetowhichtheseprinciplesarepracticedisdifferentforhouseholdersandmonks.Theyare: Non-violence(Ahimsa); Truthfulness(Satya); Non-stealing(Asteya); Celibacy(Brahmacharya); Non-possessionornon-materialism(Aparigraha); The"greatvows"(Mahavrata)areprescribedformonksand"limitedvows"(Anuvrata)areprescribedforhouseholders.Thehouse-holdersareencouragedtopracticetheabove-mentionedfivevows.Themonkshavetoobservethemverystrictly.Withconsistentpractice,itwillbepossibletoovercomethelimitationsgradually,acceleratingthespiritualprogress. Theprincipleofnonviolenceseekstominimizekarmaswhichlimitthecapabilitiesofthesoul.JainismviewseverysoulasworthyofrespectbecauseithasthepotentialtobecomeSiddha(GodinJainism).Becausealllivingbeingspossessasoul,greatcareandawarenessisessentialinone'sactions.Jainismemphasizestheequalityofalllife,advocatingharmlessnesstowardsall,whetherthecreaturesaregreatorsmall.Thispolicyextendseventomicroscopicorganisms.Jainismacknowledgesthateverypersonhasdifferentcapabilitiesandcapacitiestopracticeandthereforeacceptsdifferentlevelsofcomplianceforasceticsandhouseholders. Christianity[edit] StThomasAquinasinterprets'Youshouldloveyourneighbourasyourself'[47]asmeaningthatloveforourselvesistheexemplarofloveforothers.[48]Consideringthat"thelovewithwhichamanloveshimselfistheformandrootoffriendship"andquotesAristotlethat"theoriginoffriendlyrelationswithothersliesinourrelationstoourselves",[49]heconcludedthatthoughwearenotboundtoloveothersmorethanourselves,wenaturallyseekthecommongood,thegoodofthewhole,morethananyprivategood,thegoodofapart.However,hethinksweshouldloveGodmorethanourselvesandourneighbours,andmorethanourbodilylife—sincetheultimatepurposeoflovingourneighbouristoshareineternalbeatitude:amoredesirablethingthanbodilywell-being.IncoiningthewordAltruism,asstatedabove,ComtewasprobablyopposingthisThomisticdoctrine,whichispresentinsometheologicalschoolswithinCatholicism. ManybiblicalauthorsdrawastrongconnectionbetweenloveofothersandloveofGod.1John4statesthatforonetoloveGodonemustlovehisfellowman,andthathatredofone'sfellowmanisthesameashatredofGod.ThomasJayOordhasarguedinseveralbooksthataltruismisbutonepossibleformoflove.Analtruisticactionisnotalwaysalovingaction.Oorddefinesaltruismasactingfortheother'sgood,andheagreeswithfeministswhonotethatsometimesloverequiresactingforone'sowngoodwhentheother'sdemandsundermineoverallwell-being. GermanphilosopherMaxSchelerdistinguishestwowaysinwhichthestrongcanhelptheweak.OnewayisasincereexpressionofChristianlove,"motivatedbyapowerfulfeelingofsecurity,strength,andinnersalvation,oftheinvinciblefullnessofone'sownlifeandexistence".[50]Anotherwayismerely"oneofthemanymodernsubstitutesforlove, ...nothingbuttheurgetoturnawayfromoneselfandtoloseoneselfinotherpeople'sbusiness".[51]Atitsworst,Schelersays,"loveforthesmall,thepoor,theweak,andtheoppressedisreallydisguisedhatred,repressedenvy,animpulsetodetract,etc.,directedagainsttheoppositephenomena:wealth,strength,power,largesse."[52] Islam[edit] InIslam,theconcept"īthār"(إيثار)(altruism)isthenotionof"preferringotherstooneself".ForSufis,thismeansdevotiontoothersthroughcompleteforgetfulnessofone'sownconcerns,whereconcernforothersisdeemedasademandmadebyAllah(i.e.God)onthehumanbody,consideredtobepropertyofAllahalone.Theimportanceofīthārliesinsacrificeforthesakeofthegreatergood;Islamconsidersthosepracticingīthārasabidingbythehighestdegreeofnobility.[53] Thisissimilartothenotionofchivalry,butunlikethatEuropeanconcept,inīthārattentionisfocusedoneverythinginexistence.AconstantconcernforAllahresultsinacarefulattitudetowardspeople,animals,andotherthingsinthisworld.[54] Judaism[edit] Judaismdefinesaltruismasthedesiredgoalofcreation.ThefamousRabbiAbrahamIsaacKookstatedthatloveisthemostimportantattributeinhumanity.[55]Thisisdefinedasbestowal,orgiving,whichistheintentionofaltruism.ThiscanbealtruismtowardshumanitythatleadstoaltruismtowardsthecreatororGod.KabbalahdefinesGodastheforceofgivinginexistence.RabbiMosheChaimLuzzattoinparticularfocusedonthe'purposeofcreation'andhowthewillofGodwastobringcreationintoperfectionandadhesionwiththisupperforce.[56] ModernKabbalahdevelopedbyRabbiYehudaAshlag,inhiswritingsaboutthefuturegeneration,focusesonhowsocietycouldachieveanaltruisticsocialframework.[57]Ashlagproposedthatsuchaframeworkisthepurposeofcreation,andeverythingthathappensistoraisehumanitytothelevelofaltruism,loveforoneanother.Ashlagfocusedonsocietyanditsrelationtodivinity.[58] Sikhism[edit] AltruismisessentialtotheSikhreligion.ThecentralfaithinSikhismisthatthegreatestdeedanyonecandoistoimbibeandlivethegodlyqualitieslikelove,affection,sacrifice,patience,harmony,truthfulness.Theconceptofseva,orselflessservicetothecommunityforitsownsake,isanimportantconceptinSikhism.[59] ThefifthGuru,ArjunDev,sacrificedhislifetouphold"22caratsofpuretruth,thegreatestgifttohumanity",theGuruGranth.TheninthGuru,TeghBahadur,sacrificedhisheadtoprotectweakanddefenselesspeopleagainstatrocity. Inthelateseventeenthcentury,GuruGobindSingh(thetenthGuruinSikhism),wasatwarwiththeMughalrulerstoprotectthepeopleofdifferentfaithswhenafellowSikh,BhaiKanhaiya,attendedthetroopsoftheenemy.[60]Hegavewatertobothfriendsandfoeswhowerewoundedonthebattlefield.SomeoftheenemybegantofightagainandsomeSikhwarriorswereannoyedbyBhaiKanhaiyaashewashelpingtheirenemy.SikhsoldiersbroughtBhaiKanhaiyabeforeGuruGobindSingh,andcomplainedofhisactionthattheyconsideredcounterproductivetotheirstruggleonthebattlefield."Whatwereyoudoing,andwhy?"askedtheGuru."IwasgivingwatertothewoundedbecauseIsawyourfaceinallofthem",repliedBhaiKanhaiya.TheGururesponded,"Thenyoushouldalsogivethemointmenttohealtheirwounds.YouwerepracticingwhatyouwerecoachedinthehouseoftheGuru." UnderthetutelageoftheGuru,BhaiKanhaiyasubsequentlyfoundedavolunteercorpsforaltruism,whichisstillengagedtodayindoinggoodtoothersandintrainingnewrecruitsforthisservice.[61] Hinduism[edit] InHinduismSelflessness(Atmatyag),Love(Prema),Kindness(Daya)andForgiveness(Kshama)areconsideredasthehighestactsofhumanityor"Manushyattva".Givingalmstothebeggersorpoorpeopleisconsideredasadivineactor"Punya"andHindusbelieveitwillfreetheirsoulsfromguiltor"Paapa"andwillledthemtoheavenor"Swarga"inafterlife.AltruismisalsothecentralactofvariousHindumythologyandreligiouspoemsandsongs. Thefounderofwarkarisamprdayathegreatsaint"DhnyaneshwarMaharaj"(1275-1296)inhis"Pasaydan"praytothesupremelord"Vitthal"forthewellbeingofalllivingorganismsoftheuniverse. SwamiVivekananda,thelegendaryHindumonk,hassaid-"Jivepremkarejeijon,SeijonsebicheIswar"(Whoeverlovesanylivingbeing,isservinggod.).Massdonationofclothestopoorpeople(Vastraseva),orblooddonationcampormassfooddonation(Annaseva)forpoorpeopleiscommoninvariousHindureligiousceremonies. SwamiSivananda,anAdvaitascholar,reiteratestheviewsinhiscommentarysynthesisingVedantaviewsontheBrahmaSutras,aVedantictext.InhiscommentaryonChapter3oftheBrahmaSutras,Sivanandanotesthatkarmaisinsentientandshort-lived,andceasestoexistassoonasadeedisexecuted.Hence,karmacannotbestowthefruitsofactionsatafuturedateaccordingtoone'smerit.Furthermore,onecannotarguethatkarmageneratesapurvaorpunya,whichgivesfruit.Sinceapurvaisnon-sentient,itcannotactunlessmovedbyanintelligentbeingsuchasagod.Itcannotindependentlybestowrewardorpunishment. Howevertheverywellknownandpopulartext,theBhagavadGitasupportsthedoctrineofkarmayoga(achievingonenesswithGodthroughaction)&"NishkamKarma"oractionwithoutexpectation/desireforpersonalgainwhichcanbesaidtoencompassaltruism.AltruisticactsaregenerallycelebratedandverywellreceivedinHinduliteratureandiscentraltoHindumorality.[62] Philosophy[edit] Mainarticle:Altruism(ethics) Thereexistsawiderangeofphilosophicalviewsonhumans'obligationsormotivationstoactaltruistically.Proponentsofethicalaltruismmaintainthatindividualsaremorallyobligatedtoactaltruistically.Theopposingviewisethicalegoism,whichmaintainsthatmoralagentsshouldalwaysactintheirownself-interest.Bothethicalaltruismandethicalegoismcontrastwithutilitarianism,whichmaintainsthateachagentshouldactinordertomaximisetheefficacyoftheirfunctionandthebenefittoboththemselvesandtheirco-inhabitants. Arelatedconceptindescriptiveethicsispsychologicalegoism,thethesisthathumansalwaysactintheirownself-interestandthattruealtruismisimpossible.Rationalegoismistheviewthatrationalityconsistsinactinginone'sself-interest(withoutspecifyinghowthisaffectsone'smoralobligations). Effectivealtruism[edit] Seealso:Effectivealtruism,Earningtogive,andGivingWhatWeCan Effectivealtruismisaphilosophyandsocialmovementthatusesevidenceandreasoningtodeterminethemosteffectivewaystobenefitothers.[63]Effectivealtruismencouragesindividualstoconsiderallcausesandactionsandtoactinthewaythatbringsaboutthegreatestpositiveimpact,basedupontheirvalues.[64]Itisthebroad,evidence-basedandcause-neutralapproachthatdistinguisheseffectivealtruismfromtraditionalaltruismorcharity.[65]Effectivealtruismispartofthelargermovementtowardsevidence-basedpractices. Whileasubstantialproportionofeffectivealtruistshavefocusedonthenonprofitsector,thephilosophyofeffectivealtruismappliesmorebroadlytoprioritizingthescientificprojects,companies,andpolicyinitiativeswhichcanbeestimatedtosavelives,helppeople,orotherwisehavethebiggestbenefit.[66]PeopleassociatedwiththemovementincludephilosopherPeterSinger,[67]FacebookcofounderDustinMoskovitz,[68]CariTuna,[69]BenDelo,[70]Oxford-basedresearchersWilliamMacAskill[71]andTobyOrd,[72]andprofessionalpokerplayerLivBoeree,[73][74] Genetics[edit] ThegenesOXTR,CD38,COMT,DRD4,DRD5,IGF2,andGABRB2havebeenfoundtobecandidategenesforaltruism.[75] DigitalAltruism[edit] DigitalAltruismisthenotionthatsomearewillingtofreelyshareinformationbasedontheprincipleofreciprocityandinthebeliefthatintheend,everyonebenefitsfromsharinginformationviatheInternet. ThistermiscoinedbyDr.DanaKlisanin,thefounderandCEOofEvolutionaryGuidanceMediaR&DInc.,andisarecipientoftheEarlyCareerAwardforScientificAchievementinMediaPsychologyfromtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation'sDivisionofMediaPsychology.[76][77] AccordingtoKlisanin,"thenotionthat"somearewillingtofreelyrevealwhattheyknow"isinteresting.[78] TypesofDigitalAltruism[edit] Therearethreetypesofdigitalaltruism:(1)"everydaydigitalaltruism,"involvingexpedience,ease,moralengagement,andconformity;(2)"creativedigitalaltruism,"involvingcreativity,heightenedmoralengagement,andcooperation;and(3)"co-creativedigitalaltruism"involvingcreativity,moralengagement,andmetacooperativeefforts.[78] Seealso[edit] LookupaltruisminWiktionary,thefreedictionary. 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