Controversy - Wikipedia

Controversy is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of conflicting opinion or point of view. The word was coined from ... Controversy FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Stateofprolongedpublicdisputeordebate Forotheruses,seeControversy(disambiguation). Controversyisastateofprolongedpublicdisputeordebate,usuallyconcerningamatterofconflictingopinionorpointofview.ThewordwascoinedfromtheLatincontroversia,asacompositeofcontroversus–"turnedinanoppositedirection". Contents 1Legal 2Benford'slaw 3Psychologicalbases 4Seealso 5References 6Externallinks Legal[edit] Inthetheoryoflaw,acontroversydiffersfromalegalcase;whilelegalcasesincludeallsuits,criminalaswellascivil,acontroversyisapurelycivilproceeding. Forexample,theCaseorControversyClauseofArticleThreeoftheUnitedStatesConstitution(Section2,Clause1)statesthat"thejudicialPowershallextend ... toControversiestowhichtheUnitedStatesshallbeaParty".ThisclausehasbeendeemedtoimposearequirementthatUnitedStatesfederalcourtsarenotpermittedtocasesthatdonotposeanactualcontroversy—thatis,anactualdisputebetweenadversepartieswhichiscapableofbeingresolvedbythe[court].Inadditiontosettingoutthescopeofthejurisdictionofthefederaljudiciary,italsoprohibitscourtsfromissuingadvisoryopinions,orfromhearingcasesthatareeitherunripe,meaningthatthecontroversyhasnotarisenyet,ormoot,meaningthatthecontroversyhasalreadybeenresolved. Benford'slaw[edit] Mainarticle:Benford'slawofcontroversy Benford'slawofcontroversy,asexpressedbytheastrophysicistandsciencefictionauthorGregoryBenfordin1980,states:Passionisinverselyproportionaltotheamountofrealinformationavailable.[1][2]Inotherwords,itclaimsthatthelessfactualinformationisavailableonatopic,themorecontroversycanarisearoundthattopic–andthemorefactsareavailable,thelesscontroversycanarise.Thus,forexample,controversiesinphysicswouldbelimitedtosubjectareaswhereexperimentscannotbecarriedoutyet,whereascontroversieswouldbeinherenttopolitics,wherecommunitiesmustfrequentlydecideoncoursesofactionbasedoninsufficientinformation. Psychologicalbases[edit] Controversiesarefrequentlythoughttobearesultofalackofconfidenceonthepartofthedisputants–asimpliedbyBenford'slawofcontroversy,whichonlytalksaboutlackofinformation("passionisinverselyproportionaltotheamountofrealinformationavailable").Forexample,inanalysesofthepoliticalcontroversyoveranthropogenicclimatechange,whichisexceptionallyvirulentintheUnitedStates,ithasbeenproposedthatthosewhoareopposedtothescientificconsensusdosobecausetheydon'thaveenoughinformationaboutthetopic.[3][4]Astudyof1540USadults[5]foundinsteadthatlevelsofscientificliteracycorrelatedwiththestrengthofopiniononclimatechange,butnotonwhichsideofthedebatethattheystood. Thepuzzlingphenomenonoftwoindividualsbeingabletoreachdifferentconclusionsafterbeingexposedtothesamefactshasbeenfrequentlyexplained(particularlybyDanielKahneman)byreferencetoa'boundedrationality'–inotherwords,thatmostjudgmentsaremadeusingfastactingheuristics[6][7]thatworkwellineverydaysituations,butarenotamenabletodecision-makingaboutcomplexsubjectssuchasclimatechange.Anchoringhasbeenparticularlyidentifiedasrelevantinclimatechangecontroversies[8]asindividualsarefoundtobemorepositivelyinclinedtobelieveinclimatechangeiftheoutsidetemperatureishigher,iftheyhavebeenprimedtothinkaboutheat,andiftheyareprimedwithhighertemperatureswhenthinkingaboutthefuturetemperatureincreasesfromclimatechange. Inothercontroversies–suchasthataroundtheHPVvaccine,thesameevidenceseemedtolicenseinferencetoradicallydifferentconclusions.[9]Kahanetal.[10]explainedthisbythecognitivebiasesofbiasedassimilation[11]andacredibilityheuristic.[12] Similareffectsonreasoningarealsoseeninnon-scientificcontroversies,forexampleintheguncontroldebateintheUnitedStates.[13]Aswithothercontroversies,ithasbeensuggestedthatexposuretoempiricalfactswouldbesufficienttoresolvethedebateonceandforall.[14][15]Incomputersimulationsofculturalcommunities,beliefswerefoundtopolarizewithinisolatedsub-groups,basedonthemistakenbeliefofthecommunity'sunhinderedaccesstogroundtruth.[13]Suchconfidenceinthegrouptofindthegroundtruthisexplicablethroughthesuccessofwisdomofthecrowdbasedinferences.[16]However,ifthereisnoaccesstothegroundtruth,astherewasnotinthismodel,themethodwillfail. Bayesiandecisiontheoryallowsthesefailuresofrationalitytobedescribedaspartofastatisticallyoptimizedsystemfordecisionmaking.Experimentsandcomputationalmodelsinmultisensoryintegrationhaveshownthatsensoryinputfromdifferentsensesisintegratedinastatisticallyoptimalway,[17]inaddition,itappearsthatthekindofinferencesusedtoinfersinglesourcesformultiplesensoryinputsusesaBayesianinferenceaboutthecausaloriginofthesensorystimuli.[18]Assuch,itappearsneurobiologicallyplausiblethatthebrainimplementsdecision-makingproceduresthatareclosetooptimalforBayesianinference. BrocasandCarrilloproposeamodeltomakedecisionsbasedonnoisysensoryinputs,[19]beliefsaboutthestateoftheworldaremodifiedbyBayesianupdating,andthendecisionsaremadebasedonbeliefspassingathreshold.Theyshowthatthismodel,whenoptimizedforsingle-stepdecisionmaking,producesbeliefanchoringandpolarizationofopinions–exactlyasdescribedintheglobalwarmingcontroversycontext–inspiteofidenticalevidencepresented,thepre-existingbeliefs(orevidencepresentedfirst)hasanoverwhelmingeffectonthebeliefsformed.Inaddition,thepreferencesoftheagent(theparticularrewardsthattheyvalue)alsocausethebeliefsformedtochange–thisexplainsthebiasedassimilation(alsoknownasconfirmationbias)shownabove.Thismodelallowstheproductionofcontroversytobeseenasaconsequenceofadecisionmakeroptimizedforsingle-stepdecisionmaking,ratherthanasaresultoflimitedreasoningintheboundedrationalityofDanielKahneman. Seealso[edit] Listentothisarticle(8minutes) Thisaudiofilewascreatedfromarevisionofthisarticledated27 June 2013 (2013-06-27),anddoesnotreflectsubsequentedits.(Audiohelp ·Morespokenarticles) Argument Bipartisanship Dialectic ProCon.org Scandal Thirdrail(politics) References[edit] ^"EFFQuotesCollection19.6".ElectronicFrontierFoundation.2001-04-09.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2007-09-29.Retrieved2016-12-04. ^"Quotations:ComputerLaws".SysProg.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2008-08-22.Retrieved2007-03-10. ^Ungar,S.(2000)."Knowledge,ignoranceandthepopularculture:climatechangeversustheozonehole".PublicUnderstandingofScience.9(3):297–312.doi:10.1088/0963-6625/9/3/306.S2CID 7089937. ^Pidgeon,N.;B.Fischhoff(2011)."Theroleofsocialanddecisionsciencesincommunicatinguncertainclimaterisks".NatureClimateChange.1(1):35–41.Bibcode:2011NatCC...1...35P.doi:10.1038/nclimate1080.S2CID 85362091. ^Kahan,DanM.;MaggieWittlin;EllenPeters;PaulSlovic;LisaLarrimoreOuellette;DonaldBraman;GregoryN.Mandel(2011)."TheTragedyoftheRisk-PerceptionCommons:CultureConflict,RationalityConflict,andClimateChange".hdl:1794/22097.SSRN 1871503.{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^Kahneman,Daniel(2003-12-01)."MapsofBoundedRationality:PsychologyforBehavioralEconomics"(PDF).TheAmericanEconomicReview.93(5):1449–1475.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.194.6554.doi:10.1257/000282803322655392.ISSN 0002-8282.JSTOR 3132137.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on2018-02-19.Retrieved2017-10-24. ^Tversky,A.;D.Kahneman(1974)."Judgmentunderuncertainty:Heuristicsandbiases".Science.185(4157):1124–31.Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T.doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124.PMID 17835457.S2CID 143452957.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2018-06-01.Retrieved2017-08-30. ^Joireman,Jeff;HeatherBarnesTruelove;BlytheDuell(December2010)."Effectofoutdoortemperature,heatprimesandanchoringonbeliefinglobalwarming".JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology.30(4):358–367.doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.03.004.ISSN 0272-4944. ^Saul,Stephanie;AndrewPollack(2007-02-17)."FuroronRushtoRequireCervicalCancerVaccine".TheNewYorkTimes.ISSN 0362-4331.Retrieved2011-11-26. ^Kahan,DanM.;DonaldBraman;GeoffreyL.Cohen;PaulSlovic;JohnGastil(2008-07-15)."WhoFearstheHPVVaccine,WhoDoesn't,andWhy?AnExperimentalStudyoftheMechanismsofCulturalCognition".LawandHumanBehavior.SSRN 1160654. ^Lord,CharlesG.;LeeRoss;MarkR.Lepper(1979)."Biasedassimilationandattitudepolarization:Theeffectsofpriortheoriesonsubsequentlyconsideredevidence".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.37(11):2098–2109.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.372.1743.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2098.ISSN 0022-3514. ^HOVLAND,CARLI.;WALTERWEISS(1951-12-21)."TheInfluenceofSourceCredibilityonCommunicationEffectiveness".PublicOpinionQuarterly.15(4):635–650.doi:10.1086/266350. ^abBraman,Donald;JamesGrimmelmann;DanM.Kahan(20July2007)."ModelingCulturalCognition".SocialJusticeResearch.SSRN 1000449. ^Fremling,G.M.;J.R.LottJr(2002)."SurprisingFindingThatCulturalWorldviewsDon'tExplainPeople'sViewsonGunControl,The".U.Pa.L.Rev.151(4):1341–1348.doi:10.2307/3312932.JSTOR 3312932. ^Ayres,I.;J.J.DonohueIII(2002).Shootingdownthemoreguns,lesscrimehypothesis.NationalBureauofEconomicResearch. ^Lee,M.D.;M.Steyvers;M.deYoung;B.J.Miller."AModel-BasedApproachtoMeasuringExpertiseinRankingTasks".{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^Ernst,MarcO.;MartinS.Banks(2002-01-24)."Humansintegratevisualandhapticinformationinastatisticallyoptimalfashion".Nature.415(6870):429–433.Bibcode:2002Natur.415..429E.doi:10.1038/415429a.ISSN 0028-0836.PMID 11807554.S2CID 47459. ^Wozny,D.R.;U.R.Beierholm;L.Shams(2008)."Humantrimodalperceptionfollowsoptimalstatisticalinference".JournalofVision.8(3):24.1–11.doi:10.1167/8.3.24.PMID 18484830. ^Brocas,Isabelle;JuanD.Carrillo(2012)."Fromperceptiontoaction:Aneconomicmodelofbrainprocesses".GamesandEconomicBehavior.75:81–103.doi:10.1016/j.geb.2011.10.001.ISSN 0899-8256. Externallinks[edit] WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoControversy. LookupcontroversyinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. BrianMartin,TheControversyManual(Sparsnäs,Sweden:IrenePublishing,2014). 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