Crucifixion - Wikipedia

Crucifixion is a method of capital punishment in which the victim is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross or beam and left to hang until eventual death ... Crucifixion FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Nailingavictimtoawoodcrosstodie Thisarticleisaboutcrucifixionasamethodofcapitalpunishment.Forotheruses,seeCrucifixion(disambiguation). "Crucify"redirectshere.FortheToriAmossong,seeCrucify(song). "Crucified"redirectshere.FortheArmyofLoverssong,seeCrucified(ArmyofLoverssong). Someofthisarticle'slistedsourcesmaynotbereliable.Pleasehelpthisarticlebylookingforbetter,morereliablesources.Unreliablecitationsmaybechallengedordeleted.(October2019)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) A15thcenturydepictionofJesuscrucifiedbetweenthetwothieves PartofaseriesonHomicide Murder Note:Variesbyjurisdiction Assassination Childmurder Consensualhomicide Contractkilling Crimeofpassion Depraved-heartmurder Execution-stylemurder Felonymurderrule Foeticide Honorkilling Humancannibalism Humansacrifice Childsacrifice Internethomicide Lonelyheartskiller Lustmurder Lynching Massmurder Massshooting Massstabbing Misdemeanormurder Murderforbodyparts Murder–suicide Poisoning Proxymurder Pseudocommando Serialkiller Angelofmercy Spreekiller Thrillkilling Torturemurder Vehicle-rammingattack Manslaughter InEnglishlaw Voluntarymanslaughter Negligenthomicide Vehicularhomicide Non-criminalhomicide Note:Variesbyjurisdiction War Assistedsuicide Capitalpunishment Euthanasia Foeticide(Abortion) Justifiablehomicide "Licensetokill" Byvictimorvictims Suicide Family Avunculicide/Nepoticide Familicide Mariticide Uxoricide Prolicide Filicide Infanticide Neonaticide Siblicide Fratricide Sororicide Parricide Matricide Patricide Senicide Other Crucifixion Deicide Democide Friendlyfire Gendercide Genocide Omnicide Regicide Stoning Tyrannicide Warcrime vte Crucifixionisamethodofcapitalpunishmentinwhichthevictimistiedornailedtoalargewoodencrossorbeamandlefttohanguntileventualdeathfromexhaustionandasphyxiation.[1][2][3][4]ItwasusedasapunishmentbytheRomans,[1]amongothers.Crucifixionhasbeenusedinpartsoftheworldasrecentlyasthetwentiethcentury.[5] ThecrucifixionandsubsequentresurrectionofJesusarecentraltoChristianity,[1]andthecross(sometimesdepictingJesusnailedtoit)isthemainreligioussymbolformanyChristianchurches. Contents 1Terminology 2Details 2.1Crossshape 2.2Nailplacement 2.3Causeofdeath 2.4Survival 3Archaeologicalevidence 4Historyandreligioustexts 4.1Pre-Romanstates 4.2AncientRome 4.2.1History 4.2.2Societyandlaw 4.2.3Process 4.3InIslam 4.4Japan 4.5Burma 4.6Europe 5Modernuse 5.1LegalexecutioninIslamicstates 5.2Jihadism 5.3Otherincidents 6Incultureandarts 7Asadevotionalpractice 8Notablecrucifixions 9Seealso 10Notes 11References 12Externallinks Terminology[edit] Furtherinformation:Cross§ Name AncientGreekhastwoverbsforcrucify:anastauroo(ἀνασταυρόω),fromstauros(whichintoday'sGreekonlymeans"cross"butwhichinantiquitywasusedofanykindofwoodenpole,pointedorblunt,bareorwithattachments)andapotumpanizo(ἀποτυμπανίζω)"crucifyonaplank",[6]togetherwithanaskolopizo(ἀνασκολοπίζω"impale").Inearlierpre-RomanGreektextsanastaurousuallymeans"impale".[7][8][9] NewTestamentGreekusesfourverbs,threeofthembaseduponstauros(σταυρός),usuallytranslated"cross".Themostcommontermisstauroo(σταυρόω),"tocrucify",occurring46times;sustauroo(συσταυρόω),"tocrucifywith"or"alongside"occursfivetimes,whileanastauroo(ἀνασταυρόω),"tocrucifyagain"occursonlyonceattheEpistletotheHebrews6:6.Prospegnumi(προσπήγνυμι),"tofixorfastento,impale,crucify"occursonlyonceattheActsoftheApostles2:23. TheEnglishtermcrossderivesfromtheLatinwordcrux,[10]whichclassicallyreferredtoatreeoranyconstructionofwoodusedtohangcriminalsasaformofexecution.Thetermlatercametoreferspecificallytoacross.[11] TheEnglishtermcrucifixderivesfromtheLatincrucifixusorcrucifixus,pastparticiplepassiveofcrucifigereorcrucifigere,meaning"tocrucify"or"tofastentoacross".[12][13][14][15] Details[edit] GabrielvonMax's1866paintingMartyressdepictsacrucifiedyoungwomanandayoungmanlayingflowersatherfeet Crucifixionwasmostoftenperformedtodissuadeitswitnessesfromperpetratingsimilar(usuallyparticularlyheinous)crimes.Victimsweresometimesleftondisplayafterdeathasawarningtoanyotherpotentialcriminals.Crucifixionwasusuallyintendedtoprovideadeaththatwasparticularlyslow,painful(hencethetermexcruciating,literally"outofcrucifying"),gruesome,humiliating,andpublic,usingwhatevermeansweremostexpedientforthatgoal.Crucifixionmethodsvariedconsiderablywithlocationandperiod. TheGreekandLatinwordscorrespondingto"crucifixion"appliedtomanydifferentformsofpainfulexecution,includingbeingimpaledonastake,oraffixedtoatree,uprightpole(acruxsimplex),or(mostfamousnow)toacombinationofanupright(inLatin,stipes)andacrossbeam(inLatin,patibulum).SenecatheYoungerwrote:"Iseecrossesthere,notjustofonekindbutmadeinmanydifferentways:somehavetheirvictimswithheaddowntotheground;someimpaletheirprivateparts;othersstretchouttheirarmsonthegibbet".[16] Insomecases,thecondemnedwasforcedtocarrythecrossbeamtotheplaceofexecution.[17]Awholecrosswouldweighwellover135 kg(300 lb),butthecrossbeamwouldnotbeasburdensome,weighingaround45 kg(100 lb).[18]TheRomanhistorianTacitusrecordsthatthecityofRomehadaspecificplaceforcarryingoutexecutions,situatedoutsidetheEsquilineGate,[19]andhadaspecificareareservedfortheexecutionofslavesbycrucifixion.[20]Uprightpostswouldpresumablybefixedpermanentlyinthatplace,andthecrossbeam,withthecondemnedpersonperhapsalreadynailedtoit,wouldthenbeattachedtothepost. Thepersonexecutedmayhavebeenattachedtothecrossbyrope,thoughnailsandothersharpmaterialsarementionedinapassagebytheJudeanhistorianJosephus,wherehestatesthatattheSiegeofJerusalem(70),"thesoldiersoutofrageandhatred,nailedthosetheycaught,oneafteroneway,andanotherafteranother,tothecrosses,bywayofjest".[21]Objectsusedinthecrucifixionofcriminals,suchasnails,weresoughtasamuletswithperceivedmedicinalqualities.[22] Whileacrucifixionwasanexecution,itwasalsoahumiliation,bymakingthecondemnedasvulnerableaspossible.Althoughartistshavetraditionallydepictedthefigureonacrosswithaloinclothoracoveringofthegenitals,thepersonbeingcrucifiedwasusuallystrippednaked.WritingsbySenecatheYoungerstatesomevictimssufferedastickforcedupwardsthroughtheirgroin.[23][24]DespiteitsfrequentusebytheRomans,thehorrorsofcrucifixiondidnotescapecriticismbysomeeminentRomanorators.Cicero,forexample,describedcrucifixionas"amostcruelanddisgustingpunishment",[25]andsuggestedthat"theverymentionofthecrossshouldbefarremovednotonlyfromaRomancitizen'sbody,butfromhismind,hiseyes,hisears".[26]Elsewherehesays,"ItisacrimetobindaRomancitizen;toscourgehimisawickedness;toputhimtodeathisalmostparricide.WhatshallIsayofcrucifyinghim?Soguiltyanactioncannotbyanypossibilitybeadequatelyexpressedbyanynamebadenoughforit."[27] Frequently,thelegsofthepersonexecutedwerebrokenorshatteredwithanironclub,anactcalledcrurifragium,whichwasalsofrequentlyappliedwithoutcrucifixiontoslaves.[28]Thisacthastenedthedeathofthepersonbutwasalsomeanttodeterthosewhoobservedthecrucifixionfromcommittingoffenses.[28] Crossshape[edit] TwoillustrationsfromeditionsofabookbyJustusLipsius(1547–1606):onleft,acruxsimplex(1629edition,p.19);onright,crucifixionofJesus(1593edition,p.47). Seealso:InstrumentofJesus'crucifixion Thegibbetonwhichcrucifixionwascarriedoutcouldbeofmanyshapes.JosephussaysthattheRomansoldierswhocrucifiedthemanyprisonerstakenduringtheSiegeofJerusalemunderTitusdivertedthemselvesbynailingthemtothecrossesindifferentways;[2]andSenecatheYoungerrecounts:"Iseecrossesthere,notjustofonekindbutmadeinmanydifferentways:somehavetheirvictimswithheaddowntotheground;someimpaletheirprivateparts;othersstretchouttheirarmsonthegibbet."[23] Attimesthegibbetwasonlyoneverticalstake,calledinLatincruxsimplex.[29]Thiswasthesimplestavailableconstructionfortorturingandkillingthecondemned.Frequently,however,therewasacross-pieceattachedeitheratthetoptogivetheshapeofaT(cruxcommissa)orjustbelowthetop,asintheformmostfamiliarinChristiansymbolism(cruximmissa).[30]ThemostancientimageofaRomancrucifixiondepictsanindividualonaT-shapedcross.Itisagraffitofoundinataberna(hostelforwayfarers)inPuteoli,datingtothetimeofTrajanorHadrian(late1stcenturytoearly2ndcenturyAD).[31] Second-centurywriterswhospeakoftheexecutioncrossdescribethecrucifiedperson'sarmsasoutstretched,notattachedtoasinglestake:LucianspeaksofPrometheusascrucified"abovetheravinewithhishandsoutstretched".HealsosaysthattheshapeoftheletterT(theGreeklettertau)wasthatofthewoodeninstrumentusedforcrucifying.[32]Artemidorus,anotherwriterofthesameperiod,saysthatacrossismadeofposts(plural)andnailsandthatthearmsofthecrucifiedareoutstretched.[33]Speakingofthegenericexecutioncross,notspecificallyofthatonwhichJesusdied,Irenaeus(c.130–202),aChristianwriter,describesitascomposedofanuprightandatransversebeam,sometimeswithasmallprojectionintheupright.[34] TheNewTestamentwritingsaboutthecrucifixionofJesusdonotspecifytheshapeofthatcross,buttheearlywritingsthatdospeakofitsshapelikenittotheletterT.WilliamBarclaynotesthat,becausetheletterTisshapedexactlylikethecruxcommissaandbecausetheGreekletterTrepresentedthenumber300,"whereverthefatherscameacrossthenumber300intheOldTestamenttheytookittobeamysticalprefiguringofthecrossofChrist".[35]Theearliestexample,possiblyofthelatefirstcentury,istheEpistleofBarnabas.[36]ClementofAlexandria(c.150–c.215)isanotherearlywriterwhogivesthesameinterpretationofthenumeralusedfor300.[37]JustinMartyr(c.100–165)seesthecrossofChristrepresentedinthecrossedspitsusedinroastingthePassoverLamb:"ThatlambwhichwascommandedtobewhollyroastedwasasymbolofthesufferingofthecrosswhichChristwouldundergo.Forthelamb,whichisroasted,isroastedanddressedupintheformofthecross.Foronespitistransfixedrightthroughfromthelowerpartsuptothehead,andoneacrosstheback,towhichareattachedthelegsofthelamb."[38] Nailplacement[edit] CrucifixionwindowbyHenryE.Sharp,1872,inSt.Matthew'sGermanEvangelicalLutheranChurch,Charleston,SouthCarolina InpopulardepictionsofthecrucifixionofJesus(possiblybecauseintranslationsofJohn20:25thewoundsaredescribedasbeing"inhishands"),Jesusisshownwithnailsinhishands.ButinGreektheword"χείρ",usuallytranslatedas"hand",couldrefertotheentireportionofthearmbelowtheelbow,[39]andtodenotethehandasdistinctfromthearmsomeotherwordcouldbeadded,as"ἄκρηνοὔτασεχεῖρα"(hewoundedtheendoftheχείρ,i.e.,"hewoundedherinthehand".[40] Apossibilitythatdoesnotrequiretyingisthatthenailswereinsertedjustabovethewrist,throughthesofttissue,betweenthetwobonesoftheforearm(theradiusandtheulna).[41] Afoot-rest(suppedaneum)attachedtothecross,perhapsforthepurposeoftakingtheperson'sweightoffthewrists,issometimesincludedinrepresentationsofthecrucifixionofJesusbutisnotdiscussedinancientsources.SomescholarsinterprettheAlexamenosgraffito,theearliestsurvivingdepictionoftheCrucifixion,asincludingsuchafoot-rest.[42]Ancientsourcesalsomentionthesedile,asmallseatattachedtothefrontofthecross,abouthalfwaydown,[43]whichcouldhaveservedasimilarpurpose. In1968,archaeologistsdiscoveredatGiv'atha-MivtarinnortheastJerusalemtheremainsofoneJehohanan,whohadbeencrucifiedinthe1stcentury.Theremainsincludedaheelbonewithanaildriventhroughitfromtheside.Thetipofthenailwasbent,perhapsbecauseofstrikingaknotintheuprightbeam,whichpreventeditbeingextractedfromthefoot.Afirstinaccurateaccountofthelengthofthenailledsometobelievethatithadbeendriventhroughbothheels,suggestingthatthemanhadbeenplacedinasortofsidesaddleposition,butthetruelengthofthenail,11.5 cm(4.53 inches),suggestsinsteadthatinthiscaseofcrucifixiontheheelswerenailedtooppositesidesoftheupright.[44][45][46]TheskeletonfromGiv'atha-Mivtariscurrentlytheonlyconfirmedexampleofancientcrucifixioninthearchaeologicalrecord.[47]Asecondsetofskeletalremainswithholestransversethroughthecalcaneumheelboneswasfoundin2007.Thiscouldbeasecondarchaeologicalrecordofcrucifixion.[48]ThefindinCambridgeshire(UnitedKingdom)inNovember2017oftheremainsoftheheelboneofaman,probablyaslave,withanironnailthroughit,isbelievedbythearcheologiststoconfirmtheuseofthismethodinancientRome.[49] Causeofdeath[edit] Thelengthoftimerequiredtoreachdeathcouldrangefromhourstodaysdependingonmethod,thevictim'shealth,andtheenvironment.AliteraturereviewbyMaslenandMitchell[50]identifiedscholarlysupportforseveralpossiblecausesofdeath:cardiacrupture,[51]heartfailure,[52]hypovolemicshock,[53]acidosis,[54]asphyxia,[55]arrhythmia,[56]andpulmonaryembolism.[57]Deathcouldresultfromanycombinationofthosefactorsorfromothercauses,includingsepsisfollowinginfectionduetothewoundscausedbythenailsorbythescourgingthatoftenprecededcrucifixion,eventualdehydration,oranimalpredation.[58][59] AtheoryattributedtoPierreBarbetholdsthat,whenthewholebodyweightwassupportedbythestretchedarms,thetypicalcauseofdeathwasasphyxiation.[60]Hewrotethatthecondemnedwouldhaveseveredifficultyinhaling,duetohyper-expansionofthechestmusclesandlungs.Thecondemnedwouldthereforehavetodrawhimselfupbythearms,leadingtoexhaustion,orhavehisfeetsupportedbytyingorbyawoodblock.Whennolongerabletolifthimself,thecondemnedwoulddiewithinafewminutes.Somescholars,includingFrederickZugibe,positothercausesofdeath.Zugibesuspendedtestsubjectswiththeirarmsat60°to70°fromthevertical.Thetestsubjectshadnodifficultybreathingduringexperiments,butdidsufferrapidlyincreasingpain,[61][62]whichisconsistentwiththeRomanuseofcrucifixiontoachieveaprolonged,agonizingdeath.However,Zugibe'spositioningofthetestsubjects'feetisnotsupportedbyanyarchaeologicalorhistoricalevidence.[63] Survival[edit] Sincedeathdoesnotfollowimmediatelyoncrucifixion,survivalafterashortperiodofcrucifixionispossible,asinthecaseofthosewhochooseeachyearasadevotionalpracticetobenon-lethallycrucified. Thereisanancientrecordofonepersonwhosurvivedacrucifixionthatwasintendedtobelethal,butwasinterrupted.Josephusrecounts:"Isawmanycaptivescrucified,andrememberedthreeofthemasmyformeracquaintance.Iwasverysorryatthisinmymind,andwentwithtearsinmyeyestoTitus,andtoldhimofthem;soheimmediatelycommandedthemtobetakendown,andtohavethegreatestcaretakenofthem,inordertotheirrecovery;yettwoofthemdiedunderthephysician'shands,whilethethirdrecovered."[64]Josephusgivesnodetailsofthemethodordurationofthecrucifixionofhisthreefriendsbeforetheirreprieve. Archaeologicalevidence[edit] AlthoughtheancienthistoriansJosephusandAppianrefertothecrucifixionofthousandsofJewsbytheRomans,thereisonlyasinglearchaeologicaldiscoveryofacrucifiedbodyofaJewdatingbacktotheRomanEmpirearoundthetimeofJesus.ThiswasdiscoveredatGivatHaMivtar,Jerusalemin1968.[65] Theremainswerefoundaccidentallyinanossuarywiththecrucifiedman'snameonit,'Jehohanan,thesonofHagakol'.[66][67]NicuHaas,ananthropologistattheHebrewUniversityMedicalSchoolinJerusalem,examinedtheossuaryanddiscoveredthatitcontainedaheelbonewithanaildriventhroughitsside,indicatingthatthemanhadbeencrucified.Thepositionofthenailrelativetotheboneindicatesthatthefeethadbeennailedtothecrossfromtheirside,notfromtheirfront;variousopinionshavebeenproposedastowhethertheywerebothnailedtogethertothefrontofthecrossoroneontheleftside,oneontherightside.Thepointofthenailhadolivewoodfragmentsonitindicatingthathewascrucifiedonacrossmadeofolivewoodoronanolivetree. Additionally,apieceofacaciawoodwaslocatedbetweenthebonesandtheheadofthenail,presumablytokeepthecondemnedfromfreeinghisfootbyslidingitoverthenail.Hislegswerefoundbroken,possiblytohastenhisdeath.ItisthoughtthatbecauseinRomantimesironwasrare,thenailswereremovedfromthedeadbodytoconservecosts.AccordingtoHaas,thiscouldhelptoexplainwhyonlyonenailhasbeenfound,asthetipofthenailinquestionwasbentinsuchawaythatitcouldnotberemoved. Haashadalsoidentifiedascratchontheinnersurfaceoftherightradiusboneoftheforearm,closetothewrist.Hededucedfromtheformofthescratch,aswellasfromtheintactwristbones,thatanailhadbeendrivenintotheforearmatthatposition.However,manyofHaas'findingshavebeenchallenged.Forinstance,itwassubsequentlydeterminedthatthescratchesinthewristareawerenon-traumatic–and,therefore,notevidenceofcrucifixion–whilereexaminationoftheheelbonerevealedthatthetwoheelswerenotnailedtogether,butratherseparatelytoeithersideoftheuprightpostofthecross.[68] In2007,apossiblecaseofcrucifiedbody,witharoundholeinaheelbone,possiblycausedbyacrucifixionnail,wasdiscoveredinthePoValleynearRovigo,innorthernItaly.[69] In2017afirstcaseofcrucifiedbody,withanailintheheel,wasdiscoveredatFenstantonintheUnitedKingdom.[70]Furtherstudiessuggestedthattheremainsmaybethoseofaslave,becauseatthattimecrucifixionwasbannedforcitizensbutnotforslaves.[71] ManystudiesofancientcrucifixionrelyontheevidencefromtheexaminationofpurportedrelicsassociatedwithJesus,suchasShroudofTurinandSudariumofOviedo,authenticityofwhichisdebated.[72] Historyandreligioustexts[edit] Pre-Romanstates[edit] Crucifixion(orimpalement),inoneformoranother,wasusedbyPersians,Carthaginians,andamongtheGreeks,theMacedonians. TheGreeksweregenerallyopposedtoperformingcrucifixions.[73]However,inhisHistories,ix.120–122,theGreekwriterHerodotusdescribestheexecutionofaPersiangeneralatthehandsofAtheniansinabout479BC:"Theynailedhimtoaplankandhunghimup ...thisArtaycteswhosuffereddeathbycrucifixion."[74]TheCommentaryonHerodotusbyHowandWellsremarks:"Theycrucifiedhimwithhandsandfeetstretchedoutandnailedtocross-pieces;cf.vii.33.Thisbarbarity,unusualonthepartofGreeks,maybeexplainedbytheenormityoftheoutrageorbyAtheniandeferencetolocalfeeling."[75] Anineteenth-centurydepictionofthecrucifixionofrebelleadersbytheCarthaginiansin238BC. SomeChristiantheologians,beginningwithPaulofTarsuswritinginGalatians3:13,haveinterpretedanallusiontocrucifixioninDeuteronomy21:22–23.Thisreferenceistobeinghangedfromatree,andmaybeassociatedwithlynchingortraditionalhanging.However,Rabbiniclawlimitedcapitalpunishmenttojust4methodsofexecution:stoning,burning,strangulation,anddecapitation,whilethepassageinDeuteronomywasinterpretedasanobligationtohangthecorpseonatreeasaformofdeterrence.[76]ThefragmentaryAramaicTestamentofLevi(DSS4Q541)interpretsincolumn6:"God...(partiallylegible)-willset...righterrors....(partiallylegible)-Hewilljudge...revealedsins.InvestigateandseekandknowhowJonahwept.Thus,youshallnotdestroytheweakbywastingawayorby...(partiallylegible)-crucifixion...Letnotthenailtouchhim."[77] TheJewishkingAlexanderJannaeus,kingofJudeafrom103BCto76BC,crucified800rebels,saidtobePharisees,inthemiddleofJerusalem.[78][79] AlexandertheGreatisreputedtohavecrucified2,000survivorsfromhissiegeofthePhoeniciancityofTyre,[80]aswellasthedoctorwhounsuccessfullytreatedAlexander'slifelongfriendHephaestion.SomehistorianshavealsoconjecturedthatAlexandercrucifiedCallisthenes,hisofficialhistorianandbiographer,forobjectingtoAlexander'sadoptionofthePersianceremonyofroyaladoration. InCarthage,crucifixionwasanestablishedmodeofexecution,whichcouldevenbeimposedongeneralsforsufferingamajordefeat.[81][82][83] Theoldestcrucifixionmaybeapost-mortemonementionedbyHerodotus.Polycrates,thetyrantofSamos,wasputtodeathin522BCbyPersians,andhisdeadbodywasthencrucified.[84] AncientRome[edit] History[edit] Therewasaonce-popularhypothesisthattheAncientRomancustomofcrucifixionmayhavedevelopedoutofaprimitivecustomofarborisuspendere—hangingonanarborinfelix("inauspicioustree")dedicatedtothegodsofthenetherworld.ThishypothesisisrejectedbyWilliamA.Oldfather,whoshowsthatthisformofexecution(thesuppliciummoremaiorum,punishmentinaccordancewiththecustomofourancestors)consistedofsuspendingsomeonefromatree,notdedicatedtoanyparticulargods,andflogginghimtodeath.[85]Tertullianmentionsa1st-centuryADcaseinwhichtreeswereusedforcrucifixion,[86]butSenecatheYoungerearlierusedthephraseinfelixlignum(unfortunatewood)forthetransom("patibulum")orthewholecross.[87]PlautusandPlutarcharethetwomainsourcesforaccountsofcriminalscarryingtheirownpatibulatotheuprightstipes.[88] NotoriousmasscrucifixionsfollowedtheThirdServileWarin73–71BC(theslaverebellionunderSpartacus),otherRomancivilwarsinthe2ndand1stcenturiesBC.Crassusorderedthecrucifixionof6,000ofSpartacus'followerswhohadbeenhunteddownandcapturedafterhisdefeatinbattle.[89]JosephussaysthatinthesiegethatledtothedestructionofJerusaleminAD70,theRomansoldierscrucifiedJewishcaptivesbeforethewallsofJerusalemandoutofangerandhatredamusedthemselvesbynailingthemindifferentpositions.[90] ConstantinetheGreat,thefirstChristianemperor,abolishedcrucifixionintheRomanEmpirein337outofvenerationforJesusChrist,itsmostfamousvictim.[91][92][93] Societyandlaw[edit] TheAlexamenosgraffito,asatiricalrepresentationoftheChristianworship,depictingamanworshipingacrucifieddonkey(Rome,cAD85to3rdcentury).ItisinscribedΑΛΕΞΑΜΕΝΟΣ(ΑΛΕΞΑΜΕΝΟϹ)ΣΕΒΕΤΕ(ϹΕΒΕΤΕ)ΘΕΟΝ,whichtranslatesas"Alexamenosrespectsgod".VisibleatthemuseumonthePalatineHill,Rome,Italy(left).Amodern-daytracing(right). Crucifixionwasintendedtobeagruesomespectacle:themostpainfulandhumiliatingdeathimaginable.[94][95]Itwasusedtopunishslaves,pirates,andenemiesofthestate.Itwasoriginallyreservedforslaves(hencestillcalled"suppliciumservile"bySeneca),andlaterextendedtocitizensofthelowerclasses(humiliores).[43]Thevictimsofcrucifixionwerestrippednaked[43][96]andputonpublicdisplay[97][98]whiletheywereslowlytorturedtodeathsothattheywouldserveasaspectacleandanexample.[94][95] AccordingtoRomanlaw,ifaslavekilledhisorhermaster,allofthemaster'sslaveswouldbecrucifiedaspunishment.[99]Bothmenandwomenwerecrucified.[100][101][98]TacituswritesinhisAnnalsthatwhenLuciusPedaniusSecunduswasmurderedbyaslave,someintheSenatetriedtopreventthemasscrucifixionoffourhundredofhisslaves[99]becausethereweresomanywomenandchildren,butintheendtraditionprevailedandtheywereallexecuted.[102]Althoughnotconclusiveevidenceforfemalecrucifixionbyitself,themostancientimageofaRomancrucifixionmaydepictacrucifiedwoman,whetherrealorimaginary.[a]CrucifixionwassuchagruesomeandhumiliatingwaytodiethatthesubjectwassomewhatofatabooinRomanculture,andfewcrucifixionswerespecificallydocumented.OneoftheonlyspecificfemalecrucifixionswehavedocumentedisthatofIda,afreedwoman(formerslave)whowascrucifiedbyorderofTiberius.[103][104] Process[edit] Crucifixionwastypicallycarriedoutbyspecializedteams,consistingofacommandingcenturionandhissoldiers.[105]First,thecondemnedwouldbestrippednaked[105]andscourged.[43]Thiswouldcausethepersontolosealargeamountofblood,andapproachastateofshock.Theconvictthenusuallyhadtocarrythehorizontalbeam(patibuluminLatin)totheplaceofexecution,butnotnecessarilythewholecross.[43] Duringthedeathmarch,theprisoner,probably[106]stillnudeafterthescourging,[105]wouldbeledthroughthemostcrowdedstreets[97]bearingatitulus–asignboardproclaimingtheprisoner'snameandcrime.[43][98][105]Uponarrivalattheplaceofexecution,selectedtobeespeciallypublic,[98][97][107]theconvictwouldbestrippedofanyremainingclothing,thennailedtothecrossnaked.[17][43][98][107]Ifthecrucifixiontookplaceinanestablishedplaceofexecution,theverticalbeam(stipes)mightbepermanentlyembeddedintheground.[43][105]Inthiscase,thecondemnedperson'swristswouldfirstbenailedtothepatibulum,andthenheorshewouldbehoistedoffthegroundwithropestohangfromtheelevatedpatibulumwhileitwasfastenedtothestipes.[43][105]Nextthefeetorankleswouldbenailedtotheuprightstake.[43][105]The'nails'weretaperedironspikesapproximately5to7inches(13to18 cm)long,withasquareshaft3⁄8inch(10 mm)across.[44]Thetituluswouldalsobefastenedtothecrosstonotifyonlookersoftheperson'snameandcrimeastheyhungonthecross,furthermaximizingthepublicimpact.[98][105] Theremayhavebeenconsiderablevariationinthepositioninwhichprisonerswerenailedtotheircrossesandhowtheirbodiesweresupportedwhiletheydied.[95]SenecatheYoungerrecounts:"Iseecrossesthere,notjustofonekindbutmadeinmanydifferentways:somehavetheirvictimswithheaddowntotheground;someimpaletheirprivateparts;othersstretchouttheirarmsonthegibbet."[23]OnesourceclaimsthatforJews(apparentlynotforothers),amanwouldbecrucifiedwithhisbacktothecrossasistraditionallydepicted,whileawomanwouldbenailedfacinghercross,probablywithherbacktoonlookers,oratleastwiththestipesprovidingsomesemblanceofmodestyifviewedfromthefront.[46]Suchconcessionswere"unique"andnotmadeoutsideaJewishcontext.[46]Severalsourcesmentionsomesortofseatfastenedtothestipestohelpsupporttheperson'sbody,[108][109][110]therebyprolongingtheperson'ssuffering[97]andhumiliation[95]bypreventingtheasphyxiationcausedbyhangingwithoutsupport.JustinMartyrcallstheseatacornu,or"horn,"[108]leadingsomescholarstobelieveitmayhavehadapointedshapedesignedtotormentthecrucifiedperson.[111]ThiswouldbeconsistentwithSeneca'sobservationofvictimswiththeirprivatepartsimpaled. InRoman-stylecrucifixion,thecondemnedcouldtakeuptoafewdaystodie,butdeathwassometimeshastenedbyhumanaction."TheattendingRomanguardscouldleavethesiteonlyafterthevictimhaddied,andwereknowntoprecipitatedeathbymeansofdeliberatefracturingofthetibiaand/orfibula,spearstabwoundsintotheheart,sharpblowstothefrontofthechest,orasmokingfirebuiltatthefootofthecrosstoasphyxiatethevictim."[59]TheRomanssometimesbroketheprisoner'slegstohastendeathandusuallyforbadeburial.[98]Ontheotherhand,thepersonwasoftendeliberatelykeptaliveaslongaspossibletoprolongtheirsufferingandhumiliation,soastoprovidethemaximumdeterrenteffect.[95]Corpsesofthecrucifiedweretypicallyleftonthecrossestodecomposeandbeeatenbyanimals.[95][112] InIslam[edit] Furtherinformation:Hirabah Islamspreadinaregionwheremanysocieties,includingthePersianandRomanempires,hadusedcrucifixiontopunishtraitors,rebels,robbersandcriminalslaves.[113]TheQur'anreferstocrucifixioninsixpassages,ofwhichthemostsignificantforlaterlegaldevelopmentsisverse5:33:[114][113] ThepunishmentofthosewhowagewaragainstAllahandHisApostle,andstrivewithmightandmainformischiefthroughthelandis:execution,orcrucifixion,orthecuttingoffofhandsandfeetfromoppositesides,orexilefromtheland:thatistheirdisgraceinthisworld,andaheavypunishmentistheirsintheHereafter.[115] ThecorpusofhadithprovidescontradictorystatementsaboutthefirstuseofcrucifixionunderIslamicrule,attributingitvariouslytoMuhammadhimself(formurderandrobberyofashepherd)ortothesecondcaliphUmar(appliedtotwoslaveswhomurderedtheirmistress).[113]ClassicalIslamicjurisprudenceappliestheverse5:33chieflytohighwayrobbers,asahadd(scripturallyprescribed)punishment.[113]Thepreferenceforcrucifixionovertheotherpunishmentsmentionedintheverseorfortheircombination(whichSadakatKadrihascalled"Islam'sequivalentofthehanging,drawingandquarteringthatmedievalEuropeansinflictedontraitors"[116])issubjectto"complexandcontestedrules"inclassicaljurisprudence.[113]Mostscholarsrequiredcrucifixionforhighwayrobberycombinedwithmurder,whileothersallowedexecutionbyothermethodsforthisscenario.[113]Themainmethodsofcrucifixionare:[113] Exposureoftheculprit'sbodyafterexecutionbyanothermethod,ascribedto"mostscholars"[113][117]andinparticulartoIbnHanbalandAl-Shafi'i;[118]orHanbalisandShafi'is.[119] Crucifyingtheculpritalive,thenexecutinghimwithalancethrustoranothermethod,ascribedtoMalikis,mostHanafisandmostTwelverShi'is;[113]themajorityoftheMalikis;[117]Malik,AbuHanifa,andal-Awza'i;[118]orMalikis,Hanafis,andShafi'is.[119] Crucifyingtheculpritaliveandsparinghislifeifhesurvivesforthreedays,ascribedtoShiites.[117] Mostclassicaljuristslimittheperiodofcrucifixiontothreedays.[113]Crucifixioninvolvesaffixingorimpalingthebodytoabeamoratreetrunk.[113]Variousminorityopinionsalsoprescribedcrucifixionaspunishmentforanumberofothercrimes.[113]CasesofcrucifixionundermostofthelegallyprescribedcategorieshavebeenrecordedinthehistoryofIslam,andprolongedexposureofcrucifiedbodieswasespeciallycommonforpoliticalandreligiousopponents.[113][120] Japan[edit] EarlyMeijiperiodcrucifixion(c.1865–1868),Yokohama,Japan.A25-year-oldservant,Sokichi,wasexecutedbycrucifixionformurderinghisemployer'ssonduringthecourseofarobbery.Hewasaffixedbytyingtoastakewithtwocross-pieces.[121][122] CrucifixionwasintroducedintoJapanduringtheSengokuperiod(1467–1573),aftera350-yearperiodwithnocapitalpunishment.[123]ItisbelievedtohavebeensuggestedtotheJapanesebytheintroductionofChristianityintotheregion,[123]althoughsimilartypesofpunishmenthadbeenusedasearlyastheKamakuraperiod.KnowninJapaneseasharitsuke(磔),crucifixionwasusedinJapanbeforeandduringtheTokugawaShogunate.Severalrelatedcrucifixiontechniqueswereused.PetraSchmidt,in"CapitalPunishmentinJapan",writes:[124]Executionbycrucifixionincluded,firstofall,hikimawashi(i.e,beingparadedabouttownonhorseback);thentheunfortunatewastiedtoacrossmadefromoneverticalandtwohorizontalpoles.Thecrosswasraised,theconvictspearedseveraltimesfromtwosides,andeventuallykilledwithafinalthrustthroughthethroat.Thecorpsewasleftonthecrossforthreedays.Ifonecondemnedtocrucifixiondiedinprison,hisbodywaspickledandthepunishmentexecutedonthedeadbody.UnderToyotomiHideyoshi,oneofthegreat16th-centuryunifiers,crucifixionupsidedown(i.e,sakasaharitsuke)wasfrequentlyused.Watercrucifixion(mizuharitsuke)awaitedmostlyChristians:acrosswasraisedatlowtide;whenthehightidecame,theconvictwassubmergedunderwateruptothehead,prolongingdeathformanydays TheTwentySixMartyrsofJapan In1597twenty-sixChristianMartyrswerenailedtocrossesatNagasaki,Japan.AmongthoseexecutedwereSaintsPauloMiki,PhilipofJesusandPedroBautista,aSpanishFranciscanwhohadworkedabouttenyearsinthePhilippines.TheexecutionsmarkedthebeginningofalonghistoryofpersecutionofChristianityinJapan,whichcontinueduntilitsdecriminalizationin1871. CrucifixionwasusedasapunishmentforprisonersofwarduringWorldWarII.RingerEdwards,anAustralianprisonerofwar,wascrucifiedforkillingcattle,alongwithtwoothers.Hesurvived63hoursbeforebeingletdown. Burma[edit] InBurma,crucifixionwasacentralelementinseveralexecutionrituals.FelixCarey,amissionaryinBurmafrom1806to1812,[125]wrotethefollowing:[126] Fourorfivepersons,afterbeingnailedthroughtheirhandsandfeettoascaffold,hadfirsttheirtonguescutout,thentheirmouthsslitopenfromeartoear,thentheirearscutoff,andfinallytheirbelliesrippedopen. Sixpeoplewerecrucifiedinthefollowingmanner:theirhandsandfeetnailedtoascaffold;thentheireyeswereextractedwithablunthook;andinthisconditiontheywerelefttoexpire;twodiedinthecourseoffourdays;therestwereliberated,butdiedofmortificationonthesixthorseventhday. Fourpersonswerecrucified,viz.notnailedbuttiedwiththeirhandsandfeetstretchedoutatfulllength,inanerectposture.Inthisposturetheyweretoremaintilldeath;everythingtheywishedtoeatwasorderedthemwithaviewtoprolongtheirlivesandmisery.Incaseslikethis,thelegsandfeetofthecriminalsbegintoswellandmortifyattheexpirationofthreeorfourdays;somearesaidtoliveinthisstateforafortnight,andexpireatlastfromfatigueandmortification.ThosewhichIsaw,wereliberatedattheendofthreeorfourdays. Europe[edit] PostershowingaGermansoldiernailingamantoatree,asAmericansoldierscometohisrescue.PublishedinManilabyBureauofPrinting(1917). DuringWorldWarI,therewerepersistentrumorsthatGermansoldiershadcrucifiedaCanadiansoldieronatreeorbarndoorwithbayonetsorcombatknives.Theeventwasinitiallyreportedin1915byPrivateGeorgeBarrieofthe1stCanadianDivision.Twoinvestigations,oneapost-warofficialinvestigation,andtheotheranindependentinvestigationbytheCanadianBroadcastingCorporation,concludedthattherewasnoevidencetosupportthestory.[127]However,BritishdocumentarymakerIainOvertonin2001publishedanarticleclaimingthatthestorywastrue,identifyingthesoldierasHarryBand.[127][128]Overton'sarticlewasthebasisfora2002episodeoftheChannel4documentaryshowSecretHistory.[129] IthasbeenreportedthatcrucifixionwasusedinseveralcasesagainsttheGermancivilpopulationofEastPrussiawhenitwasoccupiedbySovietforcesattheendoftheSecondWorldWar.[130] Modernuse[edit] Prisonerkneelingonchains,thumbssupportingarms,photographicprintonstereocard,Mukden,China(c.1906) LegalexecutioninIslamicstates[edit] CrucifixionisstillusedasararemethodofexecutioninSaudiArabia.Thepunishmentofcrucifixion(șalb)imposedinIslamiclawisvariouslyinterpretedasexposureofthebodyafterexecution,crucifixionfollowedbystabbinginthechest,orcrucifixionforthreedays,survivorsofwhichareallowedtolive.[131] SeveralpeoplehavebeensubjectedtocrucifixioninSaudiArabiainthe2000s,althoughonoccasiontheywerefirstbeheadedandthencrucified.InMarch2013,arobberwassettobeexecutedbybeingcrucifiedforthreedays.[132]However,themethodwaschangedtodeathbyfiringsquad.[133]TheSaudiPressAgencyreportedthatthebodyofanotherindividualwascrucifiedafterhisexecutioninApril2019aspartofacrackdownonchargesofterrorism.[134][135] AliMohammedBaqiral-Nimrwasarrestedin2012whenhewas17yearsoldfortakingpartinananti-governmentprotestsinSaudiArabiaduringtheArabSpring.[136]InMay2014,Alial-Nimrwassentencedtobepubliclybeheadedandcrucified.[137] Theoretically,crucifixionisstilloneoftheHaddpunishmentsinIran.[138][139]Ifacrucifiedpersonweretosurvivethreedaysofcrucifixion,thatpersonwouldbeallowedtolive.[140]Executionbyhangingisdescribedasfollows:"Inexecutionbyhanging,theprisonerwillbehungonahangingtrusswhichshouldlooklikeacross,whilehis(her)backistowardthecross,and(s)hefacesthedirectionofMecca[inSaudiArabia],andhis(her)legsareverticalanddistantfromtheground."[141] Sudan'spenalcode,baseduponthegovernment'sinterpretationofshari'a,[142][143][144]includesexecutionfollowedbycrucifixionasapenalty.When,in2002,88peopleweresentencedtodeathforcrimesrelatingtomurder,armedrobbery,andparticipatinginethnicclashes,AmnestyInternationalwrotethattheycouldbeexecutedbyeitherhangingorcrucifixion.[145] In1997,theMinistryofJusticeintheUnitedArabEmiratesissuedastatementthatacourthadsentencedtwomurdererstobecrucified,tobefollowedbytheirexecutionsthenextday.[146][147]AMinistryofJusticeofficiallaterstatedthatthecrucifixionsentenceshouldbeconsideredcancelled.[148]Thecrucifixionswerenotcarriedout,andtheconvictswereinsteadexecutedbyfiringsquad.[149] Jihadism[edit] On5February2015,theUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild(CRC)reportedthattheIslamicStateofIraqandtheLevant(ISIL)hadcommitted"severalcasesofmassexecutionsofboys,aswellasreportsofbeheadings,crucifixionsofchildrenandburyingchildrenalive".[150] On30April2014,atotalofsevenpublicexecutionswerecarriedoutinRaqqa,northernSyria.[151]Thepictures,originallypostedtoTwitterbyastudentatOxfordUniversity,wereretweetedbyaTwitteraccountownedbyaknownmemberoftheIslamicStateofIraqandtheLevant(ISIL)causingmajormediaoutletstoincorrectlyattributetheoriginoftheposttothemilitantgroup.[152]Inmostofthesecasesofcrucifixionthevictimsareshotfirstthentheirbodiesaredisplayed[153]buttherehavealsobeenreportsofcrucifixionprecedingshootingsordecapitations[154]aswellasacasewhereamanwassaidtohavebeen"crucifiedaliveforeighthours"withnoindicationofwhetherhedied.[153] Otherincidents[edit] ThehumanrightsgroupKarenWomenOrganizationdocumentedacaseofTatmadawforcescrucifyingseveralKarenvillagersin2000intheDooplayaDistrictinBurma'sKayinState.[155][156] On22January2014,DmytroBulatov,ananti-governmentactivistandmemberofAutoMaidan,claimedtohavebeenkidnappedbyunknownpersons"speakinginRussianaccents"andtorturedforaweek.Hiscaptorskepthiminthedark,beathim,cutoffapieceofhisear,andnailedhimtoacross.HiscaptorsultimatelylefthiminaforestoutsideKyivafterforcinghimtoconfesstobeinganAmericanspyandacceptingmoneyfromtheUSEmbassyinUkrainetoorganizeprotestsagainstthen-PresidentViktorYanukovych.[157][158][159]BulatovsaidhebelievedRussiansecretserviceswereresponsible.[160] Incultureandarts[edit] Mainarticle:Crucifixioninthearts Sculptureconstruction:Crucifixion,homagetoMondrian,byBarbaraHepworth,UnitedKingdom(2007) AllegoryofPoland(1914–1918),postcardbySergeySolomko Car-floatatthefeastoftheVirginofSanJuandelosLagos,ColoniaDoctores,MexicoCity(2011) AntisemiticAmericanpoliticalcartoon,SoundMoneymagazine,April15,1896issue ProtestertiedtoacrossinWashingtonD.C.(1970) Crucifixion,byJanVanEyck(c.1430-1440) Christcrucified,byDiegoVelázquez(1632) Asadevotionalpractice[edit] DevotionalcrucifixioninSanFernando,Pampanga,Philippines,Easter2006 Furtherinformation:CrucifixioninthePhilippines TheCatholicChurchfrownsuponself-crucifixionasaformofdevotion:"Penitentialpracticesleadingtoself-crucifixionwithnailsarenottobeencouraged."[161]Despitethis,thepracticepersistsinthePhilippines,wheresomeCatholicsarevoluntarily,non-lethallycrucifiedforalimitedtimeonGoodFridaytoimitatethesufferingsofChrist.Pre-sterilisednailsaredriventhroughthepalmofthehandbetweenthebones,whilethereisafootresttowhichthefeetarenailed.RolandodelCampo,acarpenterinPampanga,vowedtobecrucifiedeveryGoodFridayfor15yearsifGodwouldcarryhiswifethroughadifficultchildbirth,[162]whileinSanPedroCutud,RubenEnajehasbeencrucified33times.[163]TheChurchinthePhilippineshasrepeatedlyvoiceddisapprovalofcrucifixionsandself-flagellation,whilethegovernmenthasnotedthatitcannotdeterdevotees.TheDepartmentofHealthrecommendsthatparticipantsintheritesshouldhavetetanusshotsandthatthenailsusedshouldbesterilized.[164] Inothercases,acrucifixionisonlysimulatedwithinapassionplay,asintheceremonialre-enactmentthathasbeenperformedyearlyinthetownofIztapalapa,ontheoutskirtsofMexicoCity,since1833,[165]andinthemorefamousOberammergauPassionPlay.Also,sinceatleastthemid-19thcentury,agroupofflagellantsinNewMexico,calledHermanosdeLuz("BrothersofLight"),haveannuallyconductedreenactmentsofChrist'scrucifixionduringHolyWeek,inwhichapenitentistied—butnotnailed—toacross.[166] InareportedcasefromJuly1805amannamedMattioLovatattemptedtocrucifyhimselfatapublicstreetinVenice,Italy.Theattemptwasunsuccessful,andhewassenttoanasylum,wherehediedayearlater. Notablecrucifixions[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2018)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) TherebelslavesoftheThirdServileWar:Between73BCand71BCabandofslaves,eventuallynumberingabout120,000,underthe(atleastpartial)leadershipofSpartacuswereinopenrevoltagainsttheRomanrepublic.Therebellionwaseventuallycrushedand,whileSpartacushimselfmostlikelydiedinthefinalbattleoftherevolt,approximately6,000ofhisfollowerswerecrucifiedalongthe200 kmAppianWaybetweenCapuaandRomeasawarningtoanyotherwould-berebels. Jehohanan:JewishmanwhowascrucifiedaroundthesametimeasJesusofNazarethanditiswidelyacceptedthathisankleswerenailedtothesideofthestipesofthecross JesusofNazareth:hisdeathbycrucifixionunderPontiusPilate(c.AD30or33),recountedinthefour1st-centurycanonicalGospels,isreferredtorepeatedlyassomethingwellknownintheearlierlettersofSaintPaul,forinstance,fivetimesinhisFirstLettertotheCorinthians,writtenin57AD(1:13,1:18,1:23,2:2,2:8).PilatewastheRomangovernorofJudaeaprovinceatthetime,andheisexplicitlylinkedwiththecondemnationofJesusnotonlybytheGospelsbutalsobyTacitus,[167](seeResponsibilityforthedeathofJesusfordetails).ThecivilchargewasaclaimtobeKingoftheJews. SaintPeter:Christianapostle,whoaccordingtotraditionwascrucifiedupside-downathisownrequest(hencetheCrossofSt.Peter),becausehedidnotfeelworthyenoughtodiethesamewayasJesus. SaintAndrew:ChristianapostleandSaintPeter'sbrother,whoistraditionallysaidtohavebeencrucifiedonanX-shapedcross(hencetheSt.Andrew'sCross). SimeonofJerusalem:secondBishopofJerusalem,crucifiedineither106or107AD. Mani:thefounderofManicheanism,hewasdepictedbyfollowersashavingdiedbycrucifixionin274AD. EulaliaofBarcelonawasveneratedasasaint.Accordingtoherhagiography,shewasstrippednaked,tortured,andultimatelycrucifiedonanX-shapedcross.[168] Wilgefortiswasveneratedasasaintandrepresentedasacrucifiedwoman,howeverherlegendcomesfromamisinterpretationofafull-clothedcrucifixknownastheVoltoSantoofLucca. The26MartyrsofJapan:Japanesemartyrswhowerecrucifiedandimpaledwithspears. Seealso[edit] Breakingwheel Crucifixiondarkness CrucifixionofJesus Listofmethodsofcapitalpunishment Torture Tropaion Notes[edit] ^Itisagraffitofoundinataberna(hostelforwayfarers)inPuteoli,datingtothetimeofTrajanorHadrian(late1stcenturytoearly2ndcenturyAD).Aninscriptionovertheperson'sleftshoulderreads"Ἀλκίμιλα"(Alkimila),afemalename.Itisnotclear,however,whethertheinscriptionwaswrittenbythesamepersonwhodrewthepicture,oraddedbyanotherpersonlater.Itisalsonotknownwhetherthegrafittoisintendedtodepictanactualevent,asdistinguishedfrom,perhaps,thewriter'sdesireforsomeonetobecrucified,orasajest.Assuch,thegrafittodoesnotitselfprovideconclusiveevidenceoffemalecrucifixion.[31] References[edit] ^abcGrangerCook,John(2018)."Cross/Crucifixion".InHunter,DavidG.;vanGeest,PaulJ.J.;LietaertPeerbolte,BertJan(eds.).BrillEncyclopediaofEarlyChristianityOnline.LeidenandBoston:BrillPublishers.doi:10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000808.ISSN 2589-7993. ^abJosephus.TheJewishWar.5.11.1., PerseusProjectBJ5.11.1, . ^Edwards,WilliamD.(March21,1986)."OnthePhysicalDeathofJesusChrist".JAMA.255(11):1455–63.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.621.365.doi:10.1001/jama.1986.03370110077025.PMID 3512867. ^Byard,RogerW.(March5,2016)."Forensicandhistoricalaspectsofcrucifixion".ForensicScience,Medicine,andPathology.12(2):206–208.doi:10.1007/s12024-016-9758-0.PMID 26945744.S2CID 5955208. ^RogerBourke,PrisonersoftheJapanese:Literaryimaginationandtheprisoner-of-warexperience(StLucia:UniversityofQueenslandPress,2006),Chapter2"ATownLikeAliceandtheprisonerofwarasChrist-figure",pp.30–65. ^LSJapotumpanizoἀποτυμπα^ν-ίζω(laterἀποτύμπα^ν-τυπ-UPZ119(2ndcenturyBC),POxy.1798.1.7),A.crucifyonaplank,D.8.61,9.61: –Pass.,Lys.13.56,D.19.137,Arist.Rh.1383a5,Beros.ap.J.Ap.1.20.2.generally,destroy,Plu.2.1049d. ^LSJanastauroἀνασταυρ-όω,=foreg.,Hdt.3.125,6.30,al.;identicalwithἀνασκολοπίζω,9.78: –Pass.,Th.1.110,Pl.Grg.473c.II.inRom.times,affixtoacross,crucify,Plb.1.11.5,al.,Plu.Fab.6,al.2.crucifyafresh,Ep.Hebr.6.6. ^PlutarchFabiusMaximus6.3"Hannibalnowperceivedthemistakeinhisposition,anditsperil,andcrucifiedthenativeguideswhowereresponsibleforit." ^Polybius1.11.5[5]Historiae.Polybius.TheodorusBüttner-WobstafterL.Dindorf.Leipzig.Teubner.1893. ^"OnlineEtymologyDictionary,"cross"".Etymonline.com.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^CharltonT.Lewis,CharlesShort,ALatinDictionary:crux,ŭcis,f.(m.,Enn.ap.Non.p.195,13;Gracch.ap.Fest.s.v.masculino,p.150,24,and151,12Müll.)[perh.kindredwithcircus]. I.Lit.A.Ingen.,atree,frame,orotherwoodeninstrumentsofexecution,onwhichcriminalswereimpaledorhanged,Sen.Prov.3,10;Cic.Rab.Perd.3,10sqq. – B.Inpartic.,across,Ter.And.3,5,15;Cic.Verr.2,1,3,§7;2,1,4,§9;id.Pis.18,42;id.Fin.5,30,92;Quint.4,2,17;Tac.A.15,44;Hor.S.1,3,82;2,7,47;id.Ep.1,16,48etsaep.:"dignusfuitquimalocruceperiret,Gracch.ap.Fest.l.l.:pendula",thepoleofacarriage,Stat.S.4,3,28. ^"CollinsEnglishDictionary,"crucify"".Collins.31December2011.Retrieved12December2012. ^"CompactOxfordEnglishDictionary,"crucify"".OxfordUniversityPress.Retrieved12December2012. ^"WebsterNewWorldCollegeDictionary,"crucify"".yourdictionary.com/.Retrieved12December2012. ^"OnlineEtymologyDictionary,"crucify"".Etymonline.com.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^"Dialogue"ToMarciaonConsolation",6.20.3".googleusercontent.com(inLatin).TheLatinLibrary. ^abFallow,ThomasMacall(1911)."CrossandCrucifixion" .InChisholm,Hugh(ed.).EncyclopædiaBritannica.Vol. 7(11th ed.).CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 506. ^Ball,DA(1989)."ThecrucifixionanddeathofamancalledJesus".JournaloftheMississippiStateMedicalAssociation.30(3):77–83.PMID 2651675. ^"Annales2:32.2".Thelatinlibrary.com.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^"Annales15:60.1".Thelatinlibrary.com.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^Flavius,Josephus."JewishWar,BookVChapter11".ccel.org.Retrieved1June2015. ^Mishna,Shabbath6.10:seeDavidW.Chapman,AncientJewishandChristianPerceptionsofCrucifixion(MohnSiebeck2008ISBN 978-3-16-149579-3),p.182 ^abcSeneca,Dialogue"ToMarciaonConsolation",inMoralEssays,6.20.3,trans.JohnW.Basore,TheLoebClassicalLibrary(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1946)2:69 ^Wikisource:OfConsolation:ToMarcia#XX. ^Licona,Michael(2010).TheResurrectionofJesus:ANewHistoriographicalApproach.InterVarsityPress.p. 304.ISBN 978-0-8308-2719-0.OCLC 620836940. ^Conway,ColleenM.(2008).BeholdtheMan:JesusandGreco-RomanMasculinity.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 67.ISBN 978-0-19-532532-4.(citingCicero,proRabirioPerduellionisReo5.16Archived2016-03-04attheWaybackMachine). ^"M.TulliusCicero,AgainstVerres,actio2,TheFifthBookoftheSecondPleadingintheProsecutionagainstVerres.,section170".www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^abKoskenniemi,Erkki;KirsiNisula;JormaToppari(2005)."WineMixedwithMyrrh(Mark15.23)andCrurifragium(John19.31–32):TwoDetailsofthePassionNarratives".JournalfortheStudyoftheNewTestament.27(4):379–391.doi:10.1177/0142064X05055745.S2CID 170143075.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2009-01-22.Retrieved2008-06-13. ^Barclay,William(1998).TheApostles'Creed.p. 78.ISBN 978-0-664-25826-9. ^"The ...oldestdepictionofacrucifixion ...wasuncoveredbyarchaeologistsmorethanacenturyagoonthePalatineHillinRome.Itisasecond-centurygraffitiscratchedintoawallthatwaspartoftheimperialpalacecomplex.Itincludesacaption –notbyaChristian,butbysomeonetauntingandderidingChristiansandthecrucifixionstheyunderwent.Itshowscrudestick-figuresofaboyreverencinghis'God',whohastheheadofajackassandisuponacrosswitharmsspreadwideandwithhandsnailedtothecrossbeam.HerewehaveaRomansketchofaRomancrucifixion,anditisinthetraditionalcrossshape."ClaytonF.BowerJr."CrossorTortureStake?"Archived2008-03-29attheWaybackMachine ^abCook,JohnGranger(2012)."CrucifixionasSpectacleinRomanCampania".NovumTestamentum.54(1):60,92–98.doi:10.1163/156853611X589651.JSTOR 23253630. ^"Itwashisbodythattyrantstookforamodel,hisshapethattheyimitated,whentheysetuptheerectionsonwhichmenarecrucified"(Lucian,TrialintheCourtofVowels,p.30 ^Cook,JohnGranger(10December2018).JohnGrangerCook,CrucifixionintheMediterraneanWorld(MohrSiebeck2018),p.289;cf.pp.7−8.ISBN 9783161560019. ^"Theveryformofthecross,too,hasfiveextremities,twoinlength,twoinbreadth,andoneinthemiddle,onwhich[last]thepersonrestswhoisfixedbythenails"(Irenaeus,AdversusHaeresesII,xxiv,4). ^Barclay,William(November1998).WilliamBarclay,TheApostles'Creed(WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,1998),p.79.ISBN 9780664258269. ^EpistleofBarnabas,chapter9 ^"ClementofAlexandria,TheStromata,bookVI,chapter11". ^"JustinMartyr,DialoguewithTrypho,XL,3". ^IntheHomericGreekoftheIliadXX,478–480,aspear-pointissaidtohavepiercedtheχεῖρ"wherethesinewsoftheelbowjoin"(ἵνατεξενέχουσιτένοντες/ἀγκῶνος,τῇτόνγεφίληςδιὰχειρὸςἔπειρεν/αἰχμῇχακλκείῃ). ^χείρ.Liddell,HenryGeorge;Scott,Robert;AGreek–EnglishLexiconatthePerseusProject ^Wynne-Jones,Jonathan(16March2008)."WhytheBBCthinksChristdidnotdiethisway".DailyTelegraph.London.Archivedfromtheoriginalon19March2008.Retrieved2008-03-16. ^Viladesau,Richard(2006).Thebeautyofthecross:thepassionofChristintheologyandthearts,fromthecatacombstotheeveoftheRenaissance.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 21.ISBN 978-0-19-518811-0.OCLC 58791208. ^abcdefghijKohler,Kaufmann;Hirsch,EmilG."Crucifixion".JewishEncyclopedia.Retrieved2018-03-06. ^ab"SomeNotesonCrucifixion"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on2011-07-18.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^DavidW.Chapman,AncientJewishandChristianperceptionsofcrucifixion(MohrSiebeck,2008),pp. 86–89 ^abc"JoeZias,CrucifixioninAntiquity —TheAnthropologicalEvidence".Joezias.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2004-03-11.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^"TheBioarchaeologyofCrucifixion".PoweredbyOsteons.org.Retrieved2011-11-04. ^https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324496883.Retrieved2021-06-01.{{citeweb}}:Missingorempty|title=(help) ^"CrucifixionintheFens:life&deathinRomanFenstanton"(PDF).Retrieved2021-12-10. ^Maslen,Matthew;PiersDMitchell(April2006)."Medicaltheoriesonthecauseofdeathincrucifixion".JournaloftheRoyalSocietyofMedicine.99(4):185–188.doi:10.1258/jrsm.99.4.185.PMC 1420788.PMID 16574970. ^WilliamStroud;SirJamesYoungSimpson(1871).TreatiseonthePhysicalCauseoftheDeathofChristandItsRelationtothePrinciplesandPracticeofChristianity.Hamilton,Adams&Company.Retrieved12March2013. ^Davis,CT(1962)."TheCrucifixionofJesus.ThePassionofChristFromaMedicalPointofView".ArizonaMedicine.22:182. ^FrederickT.Zugibe(30April2005).TheCrucifixionofJesus:AForensicInquiry.Rowman&Littlefield.ISBN 978-1-59077-070-2.Retrieved12March2013. ^Wijffels,F(2000)."Deathonthecross:didtheTurinShroudonceenvelopacrucifiedbody?".BrSocTurinShroudNewsl.52(3). ^PierreBarbet(1953).ADoctoratCalvary:ThePassionofOurLordJesusChristasDescribedbyaSurgeon.Kenedy.Retrieved12March2013. ^Edwards,WD;GabelWJ;HosmerFE(1986)."OnthephysicalcauseofdeathofJesusChrist"(PDF).JournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociation.255(11):1455–1463.doi:10.1001/jama.255.11.1455. ^Brenner,B(2005)."DidJesusChristdieofpulmonaryembolism?".JThrombHaemost.3(9):1–2.doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01525.x.PMID 16102134.S2CID 38121158. ^EdwardsWD,GabelWJ,HosmerFE(March1986)."OnthephysicaldeathofJesusChrist".JAMA.255(11):1455–63.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.621.365.doi:10.1001/jama.1986.03370110077025.PMID 3512867. ^abRetiefFP,CilliersL(December2003)."Thehistoryandpathologyofcrucifixion".SouthAfricanMedicalJournal.93(12):938–941.PMID 14750495. ^"ColumbiaUniversitypageofPierreBarbetonCrucifixion".columbia.edu.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2009-12-11.Retrieved2009-12-22. ^Zugibe,FrederickT(1988).Thecrossandtheshroud:amedicalinquiryintothecrucifixion.NewYork:ParagonHouse.ISBN 978-0-913729-75-5.[page needed] ^Zugibe,FrederickT.(2005).TheCrucifixionOfJesus:AForensicInquiry.NewYork:M.EvansandCompany.ISBN 978-1-59077-070-2.[page needed] ^Maslen,MW;Mitchell,PD(2006)."Medicaltheoriesonthecauseofdeathincrucifixion".JRSocMed.99(4):185–188.doi:10.1258/jrsm.99.4.185.PMC 1420788.PMID 16574970. ^TheLifeOfFlaviusJosephus,75. ^Tzaferis,V(1970)."JewishTombsatandnearGiv'atha-Mivtar".IsraelExplorationJournal.20:18–32. ^Haas,Nicu."AnthropologicalobservationsontheskeletalremainsfromGiv'atha-Mivtar",IsraelExplorationJournal20(1–2),1970:38–59;Tzaferis,Vassilios."Crucifixion –TheArchaeologicalEvidence",BiblicalArchaeologyReview11(February,1985):44–53;Zias,Joseph."TheCrucifiedManfromGiv'atHa-Mivtar:AReappraisal",IsraelExplorationJournal35(1),1985:22–27;Hengel,Martin.Crucifixionintheancientworldandthefollyofthemessageofthecross(AugsburgFortress,1977).ISBN 0-8006-1268-X.SeealsoSpectaclesofDeathinAncientRome,byDonaldG.Kylep.181,note93 ^byPaulL.Maier(1997).IntheFullnessofTime.ISBN 978-0-8254-3329-0–viaGoogleBooks. ^ZiasJ.;Sekeles,E.(1985)."TheCrucifiedManfromGiv'atha-Mivtar:AReappraisal".IsraelExplorationJournal.No. 35.pp. 22–27. ^Gualdi-Russo,E.,ThunHohenstein,U.,Onisto,N.etal.AmultidisciplinarystudyofcalcanealtraumainRomanItaly:apossiblecaseofcrucifixion?.ArchaeolAnthropolSci11,1783–1791(2019).https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0631-9 ^FirstexampleofRomancrucifixioninUKdiscoveredinCambridgeshirevillage,Arkeonews,9December2021,https://arkeonews.net/first-example-of-roman-crucifixion-in-uk-discovered-in-cambridgeshire-village/ ^InghamD.,DuhigC.CrucifixionintheFens:life&deathinRomanFenstanton.BritishArchaeology,January–February2022,pp.18-29https://www.archaeologyuk.org/resource/free-access-to-crucifixion-in-the-fens-life-and-death-in-roman-fenstanton.html ^MaslenMW,MitchellPD.Medicaltheoriesonthecauseofdeathincrucifixion.JRSocMed.2006Apr;99(4):185-8.doi:10.1258/jrsm.99.4.185.PMID16574970;PMCID:PMC1420788.,alsoacommenttothatarticle:ScotsonJ.Medicaltheoriesonthecauseofdeathincrucifixion.JRSocMed.2006Aug;99(8):386-7.doi:10.1258/jrsm.99.8.386-b.PMID16893933;PMCID:PMC1533505.,Moreno,G.H.etal.ComparativestudyoftheSudariumofOviedoand theShroudofTurin,IIICongressoInternazionaleDiStudiSullaSindone Turin,5thto7thJune1998http://www.shroud.com/heraseng.pdf ^Stavros,Scolops(σταῦρός,σκόλοψ).Thecross;Archived2011-06-28attheWaybackMachineencyclopediaHellinica ^TranslationbyAubreydeSelincourt.Theoriginal,"σανίδαπροσπασσαλεύσαντες,ἀνεκρέμασαν ...ΤούτουδὲτοῦἈρταύκτεωτοῦἀνακρεμασθέντος ...",istranslatedbyHenryCary(Bohn'sClassicalLibrary:HerodotusLiterallyTranslated.London,G.BellandSons1917,pp. 591–592)as:"Theynailedhimtoaplankandhoistedhimaloft ...thisArtaycteswhowashoistedaloft". ^W.W.HowandJ.Wells,ACommentaryonHerodotus(ClarendonPress,Oxford1912),vol.2,p.336 ^SeeMishnah,Sanhedrin7:1,translatedinJacobNeusner,TheMishnah:ANewTranslation591(1988),supranote8,at595–596(indicatingthatcourtorderedexecutionbystoning,burning,decapitation,orstrangulationonly) ^"Levi,AramaicTestamentofLevi4Q541column6". ^Shi,Wenhua(2008).Paul'sMessageoftheCrossAsBodyLanguage.MohrSiebeck.p. 46.ISBN 978-3-16-149706-3. ^VanderKam,JamesC.(2012).TheDeadSeaScrollsandtheBible.Eerdmans.p. 110.ISBN 978-0-8028-6679-0. ^"QuintusCurtiusRufus,HistoryofAlexandertheGreatofMacedonia4.4.21". ^Gabriel,RichardA.(2011).Hannibal.PotomacBooks.ISBN 978-1-59797-766-1. ^Liddell,HenryGeorge(1855).AHistoryofRome.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 302. ^Waterfield,Robin(2010).Polybius.TheHistories.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 23.ISBN 978-0-19-953470-8. ^Herodotus,Histories,3.125("Havingkilledhiminsomewaynotfittobetold,Oroetesthencrucifiedhim") ^"LivyI.26andtheSuppliciumdeMoreMaiorum".Penelope.uchicago.edu.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^"Apologia,IX,1".Grtbooks.com.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^AfterquotingapoembyMaecenasthatspeaksofpreferringlifetodeathevenwhenlifeisburdenedwithallthedisadvantagesofoldageorevenwithacutetorture("velacutasisedeamcruce"),Senecadisagreeswiththesentiment,sayingdeathwouldbebetterforacrucifiedpersonhangingfromthepatibulum:"Ishoulddeemhimmostdespicablehadhewishedtolivetothepointofcrucifixion ...Isitworthsomuchtoweighdownuponone'sownwound,andhangstretchedoutfromapatibulum? ...Isanyonefoundwho,afterbeingfastenedtothataccursedwood,alreadyweakened,alreadydeformed,swellingwithuglywealsonshouldersandchest,withmanyreasonsfordyingevenbeforegettingtothecross,wouldwishtoprolongalife-breaththatisabouttoexperiencesomanytorments?"("Contemptissimumputarem,siviverevelletusqueadcrucem ...Esttantivulnussuumpremereetpatibulopenderedistrictum ...Invenitur,quivelitadactusadilludinfelixlignum,iamdebilis,iampravusetinfoedumscapularumacpectoristuberelisus,cuimultaemoriendicausaeetiamcitracrucemfuerant,trahereanimamtottormentatracturam?"-Letter101,12–14) ^TitusMacciusPlautusMilesgloriosusMasonHammond,ArthurM.Mack-1997p.109,"Thepatibulum(inthenextline)wasacrossbarwhichtheconvictedcriminalcarriedonhisshoulders,withhisarmsfastenedtoit,totheplacefor ...Hoisteduponanuprightpost,thepatibulumbecamethecrossbarofthecross" ^"Appian•TheCivilWars –BookI".penelope.uchicago.edu. ^"Josephus,TheWaroftheJews,book5,chapter11". ^EncyclopædiaBritannica."EncyclopædiaBritannicaOnline:crucifixion".Britannica.com.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^DictionaryofImagesandSymbolsinCounsellingByWilliamStewart1998ISBN 1-85302-351-5,p.120 ^"ArchaeologyoftheBible".Bible-archaeology.info.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^abRobison,JohnC.(June2002)."CrucifixionintheRomanWorld:TheUseofNailsattheTimeofChrist".StudiaAntiqua.2. ^abcdefZias,Joseph(1998)."CrucifixioninAntiquity:TheEvidence".www.mercaba.org.RetrievedMarch10,2018. ^Matthew27:35,Mark15:24,Luke23:34,John19:23–25 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^Fallow,ThomasMacall(1911)."CrossandCrucifixion" .InChisholm,Hugh(ed.).EncyclopædiaBritannica.Vol. 7(11th ed.).CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 506.Macallbelievesthatthepersonwouldbegivenbackhisorherclothingfollowingthescourging. ^abZias,Joseph."Postscript–TheMelGibsonControversy".JoeZias.com.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch6,2004.RetrievedMarch10,2018. ^abJustinMartyrDialoguewithTrypho,aJew91 ^IrenaeusAgainstHeresiesII.24 ^TertullianTotheNationsI.12 ^Barbet,45;Zugibe,57;VassiliosTzaferis,"Crucifixion –TheArchaeologicalEvidence,"BiblicalArchaeologyReview11.1(Jan./Feb.1985),44–53(p.49) ^Ehrman,BartD.(2014).HowJesusbecameGod:TheexaltationofaJewishpreacherfromGalilee(First ed.).NewYork:HarperCollins.pp. 133–165.ISBN 978-0-06-177818-6. ^abcdefghijklmVogel,F.E.(2012)."Ṣalb".InP.Bearman;Th.Bianquis;C.E.Bosworth;E.vanDonzel;W.P.Heinrichs(eds.).EncyclopaediaofIslam(2nd ed.).Brill.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6530. ^"QuranSurahAl-Maaida(Verse33)".irebd.com. ^"SurahAl-Ma'idah[5]".SurahAl-Ma'idah[5]. ^Kadri,Sadakat(2012).HeavenonEarth:AJourneyThroughShari'aLawfromtheDesertsofAncientArabia...macmillan.p. 241.ISBN 978-0-09-952327-7. ^abcPeters,Rudolph(2006).CrimeandPunishmentinIslamicLaw:TheoryandPracticefromtheSixteenthtotheTwenty-FirstCentury.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 37–38. ^ab"تصليب"[Taslib].الموسوعةالفقهية(EncyclopediaofFiqh)(inArabic).Vol. 12.وزارةالأوقافوالشئونالإسلاميةفيدولةالكويت.1988. ^ab"حرابة"[Hiraba].الموسوعةالفقهية(EncyclopediaofFiqh)(inArabic).Vol. 17.وزارةالأوقافوالشئونالإسلاميةفيدولةالكويت.1988. ^Anthony,Sean(2014).CrucifixionandDeathasSpectacle:UmayyadCrucifixioninItsLateAntiqueContext.AmericanOrientalSeries96.AmericanOrientalSociety.Retrieved13December2013. ^Ewing,WilliamA.(1994).Thebody:photographsofthehumanform.photographbyFeliceBeato.ChronicleBooks.p. 250.ISBN 978-0-8118-0762-3. ^ClarkWorswick(1979).Japan,photographs,1854–1905.Knopf :distributedbyRandomHouse.p. 32.ISBN 978-0-394-50836-8. 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^Walker,OksanaGrytsenkoShaun(2014-01-31)."Ukrainianprotestersayshewaskidnappedandtortured".TheGuardian.ISSN 0261-3077.Retrieved2020-04-05. ^Blair,David(2014-01-31)."Ukraineprotestleader'crucifiedandmutilated'afterbeingabducted".TheDailyTelegraph.ISSN 0307-1235.Retrieved2020-04-05. ^"UkraineactivistDmytroBulatov'kidnapped,torturedandlefttodie'".TheIndependent.2014-01-31.Retrieved2020-04-05. ^Chivers,C.J.(2014-03-09)."AKievQuestion:WhatBecameoftheMissing?".TheNewYorkTimes.ISSN 0362-4331.Retrieved2020-04-05. ^DirectoryonPopularPiety144ArchivedJune23,2012,attheWaybackMachine ^"ManCrucifiesHimselfEveryGoodFriday".ReligiousFreaks.2006-04-12.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^Cal,Ben(April13,2022)."Filipinopenitentcancels'crucifixion'anewduetoCovid-19".PhilippineNewsAgency.RetrievedMay4,2022. ^Leilani,Junio(March29,2018)."DOHtopenitents:Makesurenails,whipsaresterilized".PhilippineNewsAgency.RetrievedMay4,2022. ^"Religion-Mexico:ThePassionAccordingtoIztapalapa".IPSNews.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2009-12-26.Retrieved2009-12-19. ^Aragon,RayJohnDe(2006).ThePenitentesofNewMexico:HermanosdelaLuz.SunstonePress.p. 58.ISBN 978-0-86534-504-1. ^Annals,15.44. ^Friesen,IlseE.(2006).TheFemaleCrucifix:ImagesofSt.WilgefortisSincetheMiddleAges.WilfridLaurierUniv.Press.p. 32.ISBN 978-0-88920-939-8.Eulalia...wasstripped,beaten,tormentedwithironhooks,hadherbosommutilated,wasburntwithtorches,andwasportrayedashangingonarackorX-shapedcross Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoCrucifixion. 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