Crucifixion of Jesus - Wikipedia

The crucifixion of Jesus occurred in 1st-century Judea ; According to the canonical gospels, Jesus ; Jesus was stripped of his clothing and offered vinegar mixed ... CrucifixionofJesus FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Eventdescribedinthefourcanonicalgospels "TheCrucifixion"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeCrucifixion(disambiguation). "DeathofJesus"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeDeathofJesus(disambiguation). CrucifixionofJesusThe17th-centurypaintingChristCrucifiedbyDiegoVelázquez,heldbytheMuseodelPradoinMadridDateAD30/33LocationJerusalem,Judea,RomanEmpireTypeExecutionbycrucifixionCauseJesus'sdeathsentenceParticipantsRomanArmy(executioners)DeathsJesus PartofaseriesonDeathandResurrectionofJesus Passion LastSupper Arrest Trials Sanhedrintrial Herod'scourt Pilate'scourt Flagellation Mocking Crownofthorns ViaDolorosa CrucifixionandDeath Burial Resurrection Emptytomb Appearances Nolimetangere RoadtoEmmaus GreatCommission Ascension HolyWeek PalmSunday HolyMonday HolyTuesday SpyWednesday MaundyThursday GoodFriday HolySaturday EasterSunday Significance SessionofChrist Salvation Jewisheschatology Christianeschatology VisionsofJesus Visiontheory Visions Religiousexperience Emptytombtheories Stolenbody Swoon Lostbody Twin Related Instrumentofcrucifixion Crucifixiondarkness ConversionofPaultheApostle Islamicview Portals:ChristianityBiblevte PartofaseriesonChristianity JesusChrist Nativity Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection Ascension BibleFoundations OldTestament NewTestament Gospel Canon Church Creed NewCovenant Theology God Trinity Father Son HolySpirit Apologetics Baptism Christology Historyoftheology Mission Salvation HistoryTradition Apostles Peter Paul Mary EarlyChristianity ChurchFathers Constantine Councils Augustine East–WestSchism Crusadingmovement Crusades Aquinas Reformation Luther DenominationsGroups Western WesternCatholic Protestant Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Evangelical Holiness Lutheran Methodist Moravian Pentecostal Quaker Reformed Eastern EasternCatholic EasternOrthodox EasternProtestant OrientalOrthodox ChurchoftheEast(Nestorian) Restorationist Jehovah'sWitness LatterDaySaint IglesianiCristo Relatedtopics Criticism Culture Ecumenism Glossary Index Otherreligions Outline Prayer Sermon Symbolism Worship Glossary Index Outline  Christianityportalvte ThecrucifixionofJesusoccurredin1st-centuryJudea,mostlikelyineitherAD30orAD33.Jesus'crucifixionisdescribedinthefourcanonicalgospels,referredtointheNewTestamentepistles,attestedtobyotherancientsources,andisconsideredanestablishedhistoricaleventbymany,[1]althoughthereisnoconsensusamonghistoriansontheexactdetails.[2][3][4] Accordingtothecanonicalgospels,JesuswasarrestedandtriedbytheSanhedrin,andthenbyPontiusPilate,whosentencedhimtobescourged,andfinallycrucifiedbytheRomans.[5][6][7][8] Jesuswasstrippedofhisclothingandofferedvinegarmixedwithmyrrhorgall(likelyposca),[9]todrinkaftersaying"Ithirst."Hewasthenhungbetweentwoconvictedthievesand,accordingtotheGospelofMark,diedbythe9thhouroftheday(ataround3:00p.m.).Duringthistime,thesoldiersaffixedasigntothetopofthecrossstating"JesusofNazareth,KingoftheJews"which,accordingtotheGospelofJohn(John19:20),waswritteninthreelanguages(Hebrew,Latin,andGreek).Theythendividedhisgarmentsamongthemselvesandcastlotsforhisseamlessrobe,accordingtotheGospelofJohn.TheGospelofJohnalsostatesthat,afterJesus'death,onesoldier(namedinextra-BiblicaltraditionasLonginus)piercedhissidewithaspeartobecertainthathehaddied,thenbloodandwatergushedfromthewound.TheBibledescribessevenstatementsthatJesusmadewhilehewasonthecross,aswellasseveralsupernaturaleventsthatoccurred. CollectivelyreferredtoasthePassion,Jesus'sufferingandredemptivedeathbycrucifixionarethecentralaspectsofChristiantheologyconcerningthedoctrinesofsalvationandatonement. Contents 1NewTestamentnarratives 1.1Textualcomparison 2Otheraccountsandreferences 3Historicity 4Detailsofthecrucifixion 4.1Chronology 4.2Pathtothecrucifixion 4.3Location 4.4Peoplepresent 4.5Methodandmanner 4.6WordsofJesusspokenfromthecross 4.6.1Mark/Matthew 4.6.2Luke 4.6.3John 4.7Reportedextraordinaryoccurrences 4.7.1Darkness 4.7.2Templeveil,earthquakeandresurrectionofdeadsaints 5Medicalaspects 6Theologicalsignificance 6.1Christologyofthecrucifixion 6.2Atonement 7Denialofcrucifixion 7.1Docetism 7.2NagHammadiManuscripts 7.3Islam 7.4Gnosticism 7.5Others 8Inart,symbolismanddevotions 9Seealso 10References 11Furtherreading 12Externallinks NewTestamentnarratives[edit] Seealso:Gospelharmony TheearliestdetailedaccountsofthedeathofJesusarecontainedinthefourcanonicalgospels.[10]Thereareother,moreimplicitreferencesintheNewTestamentepistles.Inthesynopticgospels,Jesuspredictshisdeathinthreeseparateplaces.[11]AllfourGospelsconcludewithanextendednarrativeofJesus'arrest,initialtrialattheSanhedrinandfinaltrialatPilate'scourt,whereJesusisflogged,condemnedtodeath,isledtotheplaceofcrucifixioninitiallycarryinghiscrossbeforeRomansoldiersinduceSimonofCyrenetocarryit,andthenJesusiscrucified,entombed,andresurrectedfromthedead.HisdeathisdescribedasasacrificeintheGospelsandotherbooksoftheNewTestament.[12]IneachGospelthesefiveeventsinthelifeofJesusaretreatedwithmoreintensedetailthananyotherportionofthatGospel'snarrative.Scholarsnotethatthereaderreceivesanalmosthour-by-houraccountofwhatishappening.[13]: p.91  AdepictionoftheRaisingoftheCross,bySebastianoMazzoni,17thcentury,Ca'Rezzonico AfterarrivingatGolgotha,Jesuswasofferedwinemixedwithmyrrhorgalltodrink.Matthew'sandMark'sGospelsrecordthatherefusedthis.Hewasthencrucifiedandhungbetweentwoconvictedthieves.AccordingtosometranslationsoftheoriginalGreek,thethievesmayhavebeenbanditsorJewishrebels.[14]AccordingtoMark'sGospel,heenduredthetormentofcrucifixionfromthethirdhour(betweenapproximately9a.m.andnoon),[15]untilhisdeathattheninthhour,correspondingtoabout3p.m.[16]Thesoldiersaffixedasignabovehisheadstating"JesusofNazareth,KingoftheJews"which,accordingtotheGospelofJohn,wasinthreelanguages(Hebrew,Latin,andGreek),andthendividedhisgarmentsandcastlotsforhisseamlessrobe.AccordingtotheGospelofJohn,theRomansoldiersdidnotbreakJesus'legs,astheydidtothetwocrucifiedthieves(breakingthelegshastenedtheonsetofdeath),asJesuswasdeadalready.EachgospelhasitsownaccountofJesus'lastwords,sevenstatementsaltogether.[17]IntheSynopticGospels,varioussupernaturaleventsaccompanythecrucifixion,includingdarkness,anearthquake,and(inMatthew)theresurrectionofsaints.FollowingJesus'death,hisbodywasremovedfromthecrossbyJosephofArimatheaandburiedinarock-hewntomb,withNicodemusassisting. Bronzino'sdepictionofthecrucifixionwiththreenails,noropes,andahypopodiumstandingsupport,c.1545. Accordingtoallfourgospels,Jesuswasbroughttothe"PlaceofaSkull"[18]andcrucifiedwithtwothieves,[19]withthechargeofclaimingtobe"KingoftheJews",[20]andthesoldiersdividedhisclothes[21]beforehebowedhisheadanddied.[22]Followinghisdeath,JosephofArimathearequestedthebodyfromPilate,[23]whichJosephthenplacedinanewgardentomb.[24] ThethreeSynopticgospelsalsodescribeSimonofCyrenebearingthecross,[25]acrowdofpeoplemockingJesus[26]alongwiththethieves/robbers/rebels,[27]darknessfromthe6thtothe9thhour,[28]andthetempleveilbeingtornfromtoptobottom.[29]TheSynopticGospelsalsomentionseveralwitnesses,includingacenturion,[30]andseveralwomenwhowatchedfromadistance,[31]twoofwhomwerepresentduringtheburial.[32] LukeistheonlygospelwritertoomitthedetailofsourwinemixthatwasofferedtoJesusonareed,[33]whileonlyMarkandJohndescribeJosephactuallytakingthebodydownoffthecross.[34] Thereareseveraldetailsthatareonlymentionedinasinglegospelaccount.Forinstance,onlyMatthew'sgospelmentionsanearthquake,resurrectedsaintswhowenttothecityandthatRomansoldierswereassignedtoguardthetomb,[35]whileMarkistheonlyonetostatethetimeofthecrucifixion(thethirdhour,or9 a.m.-althoughitwasprobablyaslateasnoon[36])andthecenturion'sreportofJesus'death.[37]TheGospelofLuke'suniquecontributionstothenarrativeincludeJesus'wordstothewomenwhoweremourning,onecriminal'srebukeoftheother,thereactionofthemultitudeswholeft"beatingtheirbreasts",andthewomenpreparingspicesandointmentsbeforerestingontheSabbath.[38]Johnisalsotheonlyonetorefertotherequestthatthelegsbebrokenandthesoldier'ssubsequentpiercingofJesus'side(asfulfillmentofOldTestamentprophecy),aswellasthatNicodemusassistedJosephwithburial.[39] AccordingtotheFirstEpistletotheCorinthians(1Cor.15:4),Jesuswasraisedfromthedead("onthethirdday"countingthedayofcrucifixionasthefirst)andaccordingtothecanonicalGospels,appearedtohisdisciplesondifferentoccasionsbeforeascendingtoheaven.[40]TheaccountgiveninActsoftheApostlessaysthatJesusremainedwiththeapostlesfor40days,whereastheaccountintheGospelofLukemakesnocleardistinctionbetweentheeventsofEasterSundayandtheAscension.[41][42]However,mostbiblicalscholarsagreethatSt.LukealsowrotetheActsoftheApostlesasafollow-upvolumetohisGospelaccount,andthetwoworksmustbeconsideredasawhole.[43] InMark,Jesusiscrucifiedalongwithtworebels,andthesungoesdarkorisobscuredforthreehours.[44]JesuscallsouttoGod,thengivesashoutanddies.[44]ThecurtainoftheTempleistornintwo.[44]MatthewfollowsMark,butmentionsanearthquakeandtheresurrectionofsaints.[45]LukealsofollowsMark,althoughhedescribestherebelsascommoncriminals,oneofwhomdefendsJesus,whointurnpromisesthathe(Jesus)andthecriminalwillbetogetherinparadise.[46]LukeportraysJesusasimpassiveinthefaceofhiscrucifixion.[47]JohnincludesseveralofthesameelementsasthosefoundinMark,thoughtheyaretreateddifferently.[48] Textualcomparison[edit] Table ThecomparisonbelowisbasedontheNewInternationalVersion. Matthew Mark Luke John WayoftheCross Matthew27:32–33 SoldiershadSimonofCyrenecarryJesus'cross. Mark15:21–22 SoldiershadSimonofCyrenecarryJesus'cross. Luke23:26–32 SoldiershadSimonofCyrenecarryJesus'cross. Jesussaidtowailingwomen:'Don'tweepforme,butforyourselvesandyourchildren.' John19:17 "They"[49]hadJesuscarrythecross. Crucifixion Matthew27:34–36 Jesustastedwinemixedwithgall,refusedtodrinkmore. SoldierscrucifiedJesus,castlotsforhisclothesandkeptwatch. [Notimeindicated] Mark15:23–25 Jesusrefusedtodrinkwinemixedwithmyrrh. SoldierscrucifiedJesusandcastlotsforhisclothes. ThishappenedatnineinthemorningonthedayofPassover(14:12,15:25). Luke23:33–34 [Nodrinkmentioned] SoldierscrucifiedJesusandcastlotsforhisclothes. Jesus:"Father,forgivethem,fortheydon'tknowwhatthey'redoing."[50] [Notimeindicated] John19:18,23–24 [Nodrinkmentioned] "They"[49]crucifiedJesusandfoursoldierseachtookagarment,castinglotsovertheundergarment(thisfulfilledaprophecy). ThishappenedafternoonontheDayofPreparationbeforePassover(19:14,31) Mocking Matthew27:37–44 Sign:"ThisisJesus,thekingoftheJews". Passersby,highpriests,teachersofthelaw,eldersandbothrebelsmockedJesus. Mark15:26–32 Sign:"ThekingoftheJews". Passersby,highpriests,teachersofthelawandbothrebelsmockedJesus. Luke23:35–43 Sign:"ThisisthekingoftheJews". Thepeople'srulers,soldiers(offeredwinevinegar)andonecriminalmockedJesus. Theothercriminaldefendedhim,andaskedJesustorememberhim. Jesus:'TrulyItellyou,todayyouwillbewithmeinparadise.' John19:19–22,25–27 Sign:"JesusofNazareth,thekingoftheJews". HighpriestscomplainedtoPilate:'Don'twrite"KingoftheJews",butthatthismanclaimedtobekingoftheJews.'Pilate:'Quodscripsi,scripsi.' [Nomockerymentioned] Jesus'motherMary,MaryofClopasandMaryMagdalenestoodnearthecross. JesustoldMary:'Thatisyourson',andtoldthebeloveddisciple:'Thatisyourmother.' Death Matthew27:45–56 Atnoon,athree-hour-longdarknesscameacrosstheland. Aboutthree,Jesuscriedoutloud:'Eli,Eli,lemasabachtani?' BystanderofferedJesuswinevinegar,otherssaid:'Nowlet'sseeifElijahsaveshim.' Jesuscriedoutagainanddied. Templecurtainripped,earthquake. Tombsbrokeopen,manydeadcamebacktolifeandappearedtomanypeopleinJerusalem. Centurionandsoldiersterrified:'SurelyhewastheSonofGod.' ManywomenfromGalileelookedonfromadistance,includingMaryMagdalene,Mary,motherofJamesandJoseph[51]andthemotherofZebedee'ssons. Mark15:33–41 Atnoon,athree-hour-longdarknesscameacrosstheland. Atthree,Jesuscriedoutloud:'Eloï,Eloï,lemasabachtani?' BystanderofferedJesuswinevinegarandsaid:'Nowlet'sseeifElijahcomestotakehimdown.' Jesuscriedoutloudanddied. Templecurtainripped. Centurion:'SurelythismanwastheSonofGod.' Fromadistance,thewomenfromGalileelookedon,includingMaryMagdalene,Mary,motherofJamesandJosesandSalome.[51] Luke23:44–49 Aboutnoon,athree-hour-longdarknesscameacrosstheland. Templecurtainripped. Jesuscalledoutloud:'Father,intoyourhandsIcommitmyspirit,'anddied. Centurion:'Surelythiswasarighteousman.' Bystandersbeattheirchestandwentaway. Thosewhoknowhim,includingtheGalileanwomen,stoodatadistance. John19:28–37 [Nodarknessmentioned,notimeindicated] TofulfillScripture,Jesussaid:'Iamthirsty.' "They"letJesusdrinkwinevinegar. Jesussaid:'Itisfinished,'anddied. [Nomentionofreactionfrombystandersoreffectontemplecurtain] Soldiersbrokethelegsoftheothertwocrucifiedmen,butnotJesus'legs(thisfulfilledaprophecy),butdidpiercehissidewithaspear(thisfulfilledanotherprophecy). Otheraccountsandreferences[edit] Seealso:JosephusonJesusandTacitusonChrist ChristontheCrossbetweentwothieves.IlluminationfromtheVauxPassional,16thcentury Crucifixion,fromtheBuhlAltarpiece,aparticularlylargeGothicoilonpanelpaintingfromthe1490s. Anearlynon-ChristianreferencetothecrucifixionofJesusislikelytobeMaraBar-Serapion'slettertohisson,writtensometimeafterAD73butbeforethe3rdcenturyAD.[52][53][54]TheletterincludesnoChristianthemesandtheauthorispresumedtobeneitherJewishnorChristian.[52][53][55]Theletterreferstotheretributionsthatfollowedtheunjusttreatmentofthreewisemen:Socrates,Pythagoras,and"thewiseking"oftheJews.[52][54]Somescholarsseelittledoubtthatthereferencetotheexecutionofthe"kingoftheJews"isaboutthecrucifixionofJesus,whileothersplacelessvalueintheletter,giventheambiguityinthereference.[55][56] IntheAntiquitiesoftheJews(writtenabout93AD)JewishhistorianJosephusstated(Ant18.3)thatJesuswascrucifiedbyPilate,writingthat:[57] NowtherewasaboutthistimeJesus,awiseman, ...HedrewovertohimbothmanyoftheJewsandmanyoftheGentiles ...AndwhenPilate,atthesuggestionoftheprincipalmenamongstus,hadcondemnedhimtothecross ... MostmodernscholarsagreethatwhilethisJosephuspassage(calledtheTestimoniumFlavianum)includessomelaterinterpolations,itoriginallyconsistedofanauthenticnucleuswithareferencetotheexecutionofJesusbyPilate.[6][7][8]JamesDunnstatesthatthereis"broadconsensus"amongscholarsregardingthenatureofanauthenticreferencetothecrucifixionofJesusintheTestimonium.[58] EarlyinthesecondcenturyanotherreferencetothecrucifixionofJesuswasmadebyTacitus,generallyconsideredoneofthegreatestRomanhistorians.[59][60]WritinginTheAnnals(c.116AD),TacitusdescribedthepersecutionofChristiansbyNeroandstated(Annals15.44)thatPilateorderedtheexecutionofJesus:[57][61] Nerofastenedtheguiltandinflictedthemostexquisitetorturesonaclasshatedfortheirabominations,calledChristiansbythepopulace.Christus,fromwhomthenamehaditsorigin,sufferedtheextremepenaltyduringthereignofTiberiusatthehandsofoneofourprocurators,PontiusPilatus. ScholarsgenerallyconsidertheTacitusreferencetotheexecutionofJesusbyPilatetobegenuine,andofhistoricalvalueasanindependentRomansource.[59][62][63][64][65][66]EddyandBoydstatethatitisnow"firmlyestablished"thatTacitusprovidesanon-ChristianconfirmationofthecrucifixionofJesus.[67] Anotherpossiblereferencetothecrucifixion("hanging",cf.Luke23:39;Galatians3:13)isfoundintheBabylonianTalmud: OntheeveofthePassoverYeshuwashanged.Forfortydaysbeforetheexecutiontookplace,aheraldwentforthandcried,"HeisgoingforthtobestonedbecausehehaspractisedsorceryandenticedIsraeltoapostasy.Anyonewhocansayanythinginhisfavour,lethimcomeforwardandpleadonhisbehalf."ButsincenothingwasbroughtforwardinhisfavourhewashangedontheeveofthePassover.— Sanhedrin43a,BabylonianTalmud(SoncinoEdition) AlthoughthequestionoftheequivalenceoftheidentitiesofYeshuandJesushasattimesbeendebated,manyhistoriansagreethattheabove2nd-centurypassageislikelytobeaboutJesus,PeterSchäferstatingthattherecanbenodoubtthatthisnarrativeoftheexecutionintheTalmudreferstoJesusofNazareth.[68]RobertVanVoorststatesthattheSanhedrin43areferencetoJesuscanbeconfirmednotonlyfromthereferenceitself,butfromthecontextthatsurroundsit.[69]However,Sanhedrin43arelatesthatYeshuhadbeencondemnedtodeathbytheroyalgovernmentofJudea–thislineagewasstrippedofalllegalauthorityuponHerodtheGreat'sascensiontothethronein37BCE,meaningtheexecutionhadtohavetakenplacecloseto40yearsbeforeJesuswasevenborn.[70][71]Accordingtoanotheraccount,hewasexecutedonrequestofthePhariseesleaders.[53] MuslimsmaintainthatJesuswasnotcrucifiedandthatthosewhothoughttheyhadkilledhimhadmistakenlykilledJudasIscariot,SimonofCyrene,orsomeoneelseinhisplace.[72]TheyholdthisbeliefbasedonvariousinterpretationsofQuran 4:157–158,whichstates:"theykilledhimnot,norcrucifiedhim,butsoitwasmadetoappeartothem[oritappearedsountothem], ...Nay,AllahraisedhimupuntoHimself".[72] SomeearlyChristianGnosticsects,believingJesusdidnothaveaphysicalsubstance,deniedthathewascrucified.[73][74]Inresponse,IgnatiusofAntiochinsistedthatJesuswastrulybornandwastrulycrucifiedandwrotethatthosewhoheldthatJesusonlyseemedtosufferonlyseemedtobeChristians.[75][76] Historicity[edit] Seealso:HistoricityofJesus CrucifixionofJesusofNazareth,medievalillustrationfromtheHortusdeliciarumofHerradofLandsberg,12thcentury ThebaptismofJesusandhiscrucifixionareconsideredtobetwohistoricallycertainfactsaboutJesus.[77][78]JamesDunnstatesthatthese"twofactsinthelifeofJesuscommandalmostuniversalassent"and"ranksohighonthe'almostimpossibletodoubtordeny'scaleofhistoricalfacts"thattheyareoftenthestartingpointsforthestudyofthehistoricalJesus.[77]BartEhrmanstatesthatthecrucifixionofJesusontheordersofPontiusPilateisthemostcertainelementabouthim.[79]JohnDominicCrossanstatesthatthecrucifixionofJesusisascertainasanyhistoricalfactcanbe.[80]EddyandBoydstatethatitisnow"firmlyestablished"thatthereisnon-ChristianconfirmationofthecrucifixionofJesus.[67]CraigBlombergstatesthatmostscholarsinthethirdquestforthehistoricalJesusconsiderthecrucifixionindisputable.[4]ChristopherM.Tuckettstatesthat,althoughtheexactreasonsforthedeathofJesusarehardtodetermine,oneoftheindisputablefactsabouthimisthathewascrucified.[81] JohnP.MeierviewsthecrucifixionofJesusashistoricalfactandstatesthatChristianswouldnothaveinventedthepainfuldeathoftheirleader,invokingthecriterionofembarrassmentprincipleinhistoricalresearch.[82]Meierstatesthatanumberofothercriteria,e.g.,thecriterionofmultipleattestation(i.e.,confirmationbymorethanonesource)andthecriterionofcoherence(i.e.,thatitfitswithotherhistoricalelements)helpestablishthecrucifixionofJesusasahistoricalevent.[83] Whilescholarsagreeonthehistoricityofthecrucifixion,theydifferonthereasonandcontextforit.Forexample,bothE.P.SandersandPaulaFredriksensupportthehistoricityofthecrucifixionbutcontendthatJesusdidnotforetellhisowncrucifixionandthathispredictionofthecrucifixionisa"churchcreation".[84]: 126 GezaVermesalsoviewsthecrucifixionasahistoricaleventbutprovideshisownexplanationandbackgroundforit.[84] Althoughalmostallancientsourcesrelatingtocrucifixionareliterary,in1968,anarcheologicaldiscoveryjustnortheastofJerusalemuncoveredthebodyofacrucifiedmandatedtothe1stcentury,whichprovidedgoodconfirmatoryevidencethatcrucifixionsoccurredduringtheRomanperiodroughlyaccordingtothemannerinwhichthecrucifixionofJesusisdescribedinthegospels.[85]ThecrucifiedmanwasidentifiedasYehohananbenHagkolandprobablydiedaboutAD70,aroundthetimeoftheJewishrevoltagainstRome.TheanalysesattheHadassahMedicalSchoolestimatedthathediedinhislate20s.[86][87]Anotherrelevantarchaeologicalfind,whichalsodatestothe1stcenturyAD,isanunidentifiedheelbonewithaspikediscoveredinaJerusalemgravesite,nowheldbytheIsraelAntiquitiesAuthorityanddisplayedintheIsraelMuseum.[citationneeded] Detailsofthecrucifixion[edit] Mainarticle:Passion(Christianity) Chronology[edit] Mainarticle:ChronologyofJesus ThereisnoconsensusregardingtheexactdateofthecrucifixionofJesus,althoughitisgenerallyagreedbybiblicalscholarsthatitwasonaFridayonornearPassover(Nisan14),duringthegovernorshipofPontiusPilate(whoruledAD26–36).[88]Variousapproacheshavebeenusedtoestimatetheyearofthecrucifixion,includingthecanonicalGospels,thechronologyofthelifeofPaul,aswellasdifferentastronomicalmodels.Scholarshaveprovidedestimatesintherange30–33AD,[89][90][91]withRainerRiesnerstatingthat"thefourteenthofNisan(7April)oftheyearA.D.30is,apparentlyintheopinionofthemajorityofcontemporaryscholarsaswell,farandawaythemostlikelydateofthecrucifixionofJesus."[92]AnotherpreferreddateamongscholarsisFriday,April3,33AD.[93][94] TheconsensusofscholarshipisthattheNewTestamentaccountsrepresentacrucifixionoccurringonaFriday,butaThursdayorWednesdaycrucifixionhavealsobeenproposed.[95][96]SomescholarsexplainaThursdaycrucifixionbasedona"doublesabbath"causedbyanextraPassoversabbathfallingonThursdaydusktoFridayafternoon,aheadofthenormalweeklySabbath.[95][97]SomehavearguedthatJesuswascrucifiedonWednesday,notFriday,onthegroundsofthementionof"threedaysandthreenights"inMatthewbeforehisresurrection,celebratedonSunday.OthershavecounteredbysayingthatthisignorestheJewishidiombywhicha"dayandnight"mayrefertoanypartofa24-hourperiod,thattheexpressioninMatthewisidiomatic,notastatementthatJesuswas72hoursinthetomb,andthatthemanyreferencestoaresurrectiononthethirddaydonotrequirethreeliteralnights.[95][98] InMark15:25crucifixiontakesplaceatthethirdhour(9a.m.)andJesus'deathattheninthhour(3p.m.).[99]However,inJohn19:14JesusisstillbeforePilateatthesixthhour.[100]Scholarshavepresentedanumberofargumentstodealwiththeissue,somesuggestingareconciliation,e.g.,basedontheuseofRomantimekeepinginJohn,sinceRomantimekeepingbeganatmidnightandthiswouldmeanbeingbeforePilateatthe6thhourwas6a.m.,yetothershaverejectedthearguments.[100][101][102]Severalscholarshavearguedthatthemodernprecisionofmarkingthetimeofdayshouldnotbereadbackintothegospelaccounts,writtenatatimewhennostandardizationoftimepieces,orexactrecordingofhoursandminuteswasavailable,andtimewasoftenapproximatedtotheclosestthree-hourperiod.[100][103][104] Pathtothecrucifixion[edit] Mainarticles:ChristcarryingtheCrossandViaDolorosa AndreadiBartolo,WaytoCalvary,c.1400.TheclusterofhalosattheleftaretheVirginMaryinfront,withtheThreeMarys. ThethreeSynopticGospelsrefertoamancalledSimonofCyrenewhomtheRomansoldiersordertocarrythecrossafterJesusinitiallycarriesitbutthencollapses,[105]whiletheGospelofJohnjustsaysthatJesus"bears"hisowncross.[Jn.19:17] Luke'sgospelalsodescribesaninteractionbetweenJesusandthewomenamongthecrowdofmournersfollowinghim,quotingJesusassaying"DaughtersofJerusalem,donotweepforme,butweepforyourselvesandforyourchildren.Forbehold,thedaysarecomingwhentheywillsay,'Blessedarethebarrenandthewombsthatneverboreandthebreaststhatnevernursed!'Thentheywillbegintosaytothemountains,'Fallonus,'andtothehills,'Coverus.'Foriftheydothesethingswhenthewoodisgreen,whatwillhappenwhenitisdry?"[Lk.23:28–31] TheGospelofLukehasJesusaddressthesewomenas"daughtersofJerusalem",thusdistinguishingthemfromthewomenwhomthesamegospeldescribesas"thewomenwhohadfollowedhimfromGalilee"andwhowerepresentathiscrucifixion.[106] Traditionally,thepaththatJesustookiscalledViaDolorosa(Latinfor"WayofGrief"or"WayofSuffering")andisastreetintheOldCityofJerusalem.ItismarkedbynineofthefourteenStationsoftheCross.ItpassestheEcceHomoChurchandthelastfivestationsareinsidetheChurchoftheHolySepulchre. ThereisnoreferencetoawomannamedVeronica[107]intheGospels,butsourcessuchasActaSanctorumdescribeherasapiouswomanofJerusalemwho,movedwithpityasJesuscarriedhiscrosstoGolgotha,gavehimherveilthathemightwipehisforehead.[108][109][110][111] Location[edit] AdiagramoftheChurchoftheHolySepulchreandthehistoricalsite Thepreciselocationofthecrucifixionremainsamatterofconjecture,butthebiblicalaccountsindicatethatitwasoutsidethecitywallsofJerusalem,[Jn.19:20][Heb.13:12]accessibletopassers-by[Mt.27:39][Mk.15:21,29–30]andobservablefromsomedistanceaway.[Mk.15:40]EusebiusidentifieditslocationonlyasbeingnorthofMountZion,[112]whichisconsistentwiththetwomostpopularlysuggestedsitesofmoderntimes. CalvaryasanEnglishnamefortheplaceisderivedfromtheLatinwordforskull(calvaria),whichisusedintheVulgatetranslationof"placeofaskull",theexplanationgiveninallfourGospelsoftheAramaicwordGûlgaltâ(transliteratedintotheGreekasΓολγοθᾶ(Golgotha)),whichwasthenameoftheplacewhereJesuswascrucified.[113]Thetextdoesnotindicatewhyitwassodesignated,butseveraltheorieshavebeenputforward.Oneisthatasaplaceofpublicexecution,Calvarymayhavebeenstrewnwiththeskullsofabandonedvictims(whichwouldbecontrarytoJewishburialtraditions,butnotRoman).AnotheristhatCalvaryisnamedafteranearbycemetery(whichisconsistentwithbothoftheproposedmodernsites).Athirdisthatthenamewasderivedfromthephysicalcontour,whichwouldbemoreconsistentwiththesingularuseoftheword,i.e.,theplaceof"askull".Whileoftenreferredtoas"MountCalvary",itwasmorelikelyasmallhillorrockyknoll.[114] Thetraditionalsite,insidewhatisnowoccupiedbytheChurchoftheHolySepulchreintheChristianQuarteroftheOldCity,hasbeenattestedsincethe4thcentury.Asecondsite(commonlyreferredtoasGordon'sCalvary[115]),locatedfurthernorthoftheOldCitynearaplacepopularlycalledtheGardenTomb,hasbeenpromotedsincethe19thcentury. Peoplepresent[edit] ThedeadChristwiththeVirgin,JohntheEvangelistandMaryMagdalene.Unknownpainterofthe18thcentury Seealso:Womenatthecrucifixion TheGospelofMatthewdescribesmanywomenatthecrucifixion,someofwhomarenamedintheGospels.Asidefromthesewomen,thethreeSynopticGospelsspeakofthepresenceofothers:"thechiefpriests,withthescribesandelders";[116]tworobberscrucified,oneonJesus'rightandoneonhisleft,[117]whomtheGospelofLukepresentsasthepenitentthiefandtheimpenitentthief;[118]"thesoldiers",[119]"thecenturionandthosewhowerewithhim,keepingwatchoverJesus";[120]passers-by;[121]"bystanders",[122]"thecrowdsthathadassembledforthisspectacle";[123]and"hisacquaintances".[124] TheGospelofJohnalsospeaksofwomenpresent,butonlymentionsthesoldiers[125]and"thedisciplewhomJesusloved".[126] TheGospelsalsotellofthearrival,afterthedeathofJesus,ofJosephofArimathea[127]andofNicodemus.[128] Methodandmanner[edit] Mainarticle:InstrumentofJesus'crucifixion CrucifixionofJesusonatwo-beamedcross,fromtheSainteBible(1866) Torturestake,asimplewoodentorturestake.ImagebyJustusLipsius. WhereasmostChristiansbelievethegibbetonwhichJesuswasexecutedwasthetraditionaltwo-beamedcross,theJehovah'sWitnessesholdtheviewthatasingleuprightstakewasused.TheGreekandLatinwordsusedintheearliestChristianwritingsareambiguous.TheKoineGreektermsusedintheNewTestamentarestauros(σταυρός)andxylon(ξύλον).Thelattermeanswood(alivetree,timberoranobjectconstructedofwood);inearlierformsofGreek,theformertermmeantanuprightstakeorpole,butinKoineGreekitwasusedalsotomeanacross.[129]TheLatinwordcruxwasalsoappliedtoobjectsotherthanacross.[130] However,earlyChristianwriterswhospeakoftheshapeoftheparticulargibbetonwhichJesusdiedinvariablydescribeitashavingacross-beam.Forinstance,theEpistleofBarnabas,whichwascertainlyearlierthan135,[131]andmayhavebeenofthe1stcenturyAD,[132]thetimewhenthegospelaccountsofthedeathofJesuswerewritten,likenedittotheletterT(theGreeklettertau,whichhadthenumericvalueof300),[133]andtothepositionassumedbyMosesinExodus17:11–12.[134]JustinMartyr(100–165)explicitlysaysthecrossofChristwasoftwo-beamshape:"ThatlambwhichwascommandedtobewhollyroastedwasasymbolofthesufferingofthecrosswhichChristwouldundergo.Forthelamb,whichisroasted,isroastedanddressedupintheformofthecross.Foronespitistransfixedrightthroughfromthelowerpartsuptothehead,andoneacrosstheback,towhichareattachedthelegsofthelamb."[135]Irenaeus,whodiedaroundtheendofthe2ndcentury,speaksofthecrossashaving"fiveextremities,twoinlength,twoinbreadth,andoneinthemiddle,onwhich[last]thepersonrestswhoisfixedbythenails."[136] Theassumptionoftheuseofatwo-beamedcrossdoesnotdeterminethenumberofnailsusedinthecrucifixionandsometheoriessuggestthreenailswhileotherssuggestfournails.[137]However,throughouthistorylargernumbersofnailshavebeenhypothesized,attimesashighas14nails.[138]Thesevariationsarealsopresentintheartisticdepictionsofthecrucifixion.[139]IntheWesternChurch,beforetheRenaissanceusuallyfournailswouldbedepicted,withthefeetsidebyside.AftertheRenaissancemostdepictionsusethreenails,withonefootplacedontheother.[139]Nailsarealmostalwaysdepictedinart,althoughRomanssometimesjusttiedthevictimstothecross.[139]ThetraditionalsocarriestoChristianemblems,e.g.theJesuitsusethreenailsundertheIHSmonogramandacrosstosymbolizethecrucifixion.[140] Theplacingofthenailsinthehands,orthewristsisalsouncertain.SometheoriessuggestthattheGreekwordcheir(χείρ)forhandincludesthewristandthattheRomansweregenerallytrainedtoplacenailsthroughDestot'sspace(betweenthecapitateandlunatebones)withoutfracturinganybones.[141]AnothertheorysuggeststhattheGreekwordforhandalsoincludestheforearmandthatthenailswereplacedneartheradiusandulnaoftheforearm.[142]Ropesmayhavealsobeenusedtofastenthehandsinadditiontotheuseofnails.[143] Anotherissueofdebatehasbeentheuseofahypopodiumasastandingplatformtosupportthefeet,giventhatthehandsmaynothavebeenabletosupporttheweight.Inthe17thcenturyRasmusBartholinconsideredanumberofanalyticalscenariosofthattopic.[138]Inthe20thcentury,forensicpathologistFrederickZugibeperformedanumberofcrucifixionexperimentsbyusingropestohanghumansubjectsatvariousanglesandhandpositions.[142]Hisexperimentssupportanangledsuspension,andatwo-beamedcross,andperhapssomeformoffootsupport,giventhatinanAufbindenformofsuspensionfromastraightstake(asusedbytheNazisintheDachauconcentrationcampduringWorldWarII),deathcomesratherquickly.[144] WordsofJesusspokenfromthecross[edit] Mainarticle:SayingsofJesusonthecross Crucifixion,seenfromtheCross,byJamesTissot,c.1890,BrooklynMuseum TheGospelsdescribevariouslastwordsthatJesussaidwhileonthecross,[145]asfollows: Mark/Matthew[edit] E′li,E′li,la′masa‧bach‧tha′ni?[Mt.27:46][Mk.15:34](Aramaicfor"MyGod,MyGod,whyhaveyouforsakenme?").However,asAramaiclinguistSteveCarusoofAramaicNT.org[146]explains,JesusmostlikelyspokeGalileanAramaic,whichwouldrenderthepronunciationofthesewordsasfollows:əlahíəlahíləmáhšəvaqtáni.[147] TheonlywordsofJesusonthecrossmentionedintheMarkandMatthewaccounts,thisisaquotationofPsalm22.SinceotherversesofthesamePsalmarecitedinthecrucifixionaccounts,somecommentatorsconsideritaliteraryandtheologicalcreation;however,GezaVermespointsoutthattheverseiscitedinAramaicratherthantheHebrewinwhichitusuallywouldhavebeenrecited,andsuggeststhatbythetimeofJesus,thisphrasehadbecomeaproverbialsayingincommonusage.[148]ComparedtotheaccountsintheotherGospels,whichhedescribesas'theologicallycorrectandreassuring',heconsidersthisphrase'unexpected,disquietingandinconsequencemoreprobable'.[149]Hedescribesitasbearing'alltheappearancesofagenuinecry'.[150]RaymondBrownlikewisecommentsthathefinds'nopersuasiveargumentagainstattributingtotheJesusofMark/MatttheliteralsentimentoffeelingforsakenexpressedinthePsalmquote'.[151] Luke[edit] "Father,forgivethem;fortheydonotknowwhattheyaredoing."[Lk.23:34][Someearlymanuscriptsdonothavethis] "TrulyItellyou,todayyouwillbewithmeinParadise."[Lk.23:43] "Father,intoyourhandsIcommendmyspirit."[Lk.23:46] TheGospelofLukedoesnotincludetheaforementionedexclamationofJesusmentionedinMatthewandMark.[152] John[edit] "Woman,hereisyourson."[Jn.19:25–27] "Iamthirsty."[Jn.19:28] "Itisfinished."[Jn.19:30] ThewordsofJesusonthecross,especiallyhislastwords,havebeenthesubjectofawiderangeofChristianteachingsandsermons,andanumberofauthorshavewrittenbooksspecificallydevotedtothelastsayingsofChrist.[153][154][155][156][157][158] Reportedextraordinaryoccurrences[edit] Thesynopticsreportvariousmiraculouseventsduringthecrucifixion.[159][160]MarkmentionsaperiodofdarknessinthedaytimeduringJesus'crucifixion,andtheTempleveilbeingtornintwowhenJesusdies.[44]LukefollowsMark;[46]asdoesMatthew,additionallymentioninganearthquakeandtheresurrectionofdeadsaints.[45]NomentionofanyoftheseappearsinJohn.[161] Darkness[edit] Mainarticle:Crucifixiondarkness ChristontheCross,byCarlHeinrichBloch,showingtheskiesdarkened Inthesynopticnarrative,whileJesusishangingonthecross,theskyoverJudea(orthewholeworld)is"darkenedforthreehours,"fromthesixthtotheninthhour(noontomid-afternoon).ThereisnoreferencetodarknessintheGospelofJohnaccount,inwhichthecrucifixiondoesnottakeplaceuntilafternoon.[162] SomeancientChristianwritersconsideredthepossibilitythatpagancommentatorsmayhavementionedthiseventandmistookitforasolareclipse,pointingoutthataneclipsecouldnotoccurduringthePassover,whichtakesplaceduringthefullmoonwhenthemoonisoppositethesunratherthaninfrontofit.ChristiantravelerandhistorianSextusJuliusAfricanusandChristiantheologianOrigenrefertoGreekhistorianPhlegon,wholivedinthe2ndcenturyAD,ashavingwritten"withregardtotheeclipseinthetimeofTiberiusCaesar,inwhosereignJesusappearstohavebeencrucified,andthegreatearthquakeswhichthentookplace".[163] SextusJuliusAfricanusfurtherreferstothewritingsofhistorianThallus:"ThisdarknessThallus,inthethirdbookofhisHistory,calls,asappearstomewithoutreason,aneclipseofthesun.FortheHebrewscelebratethepassoveronthe14thdayaccordingtothemoon,andthepassionofourSaviourfallsonthedaybeforethepassover;butaneclipseofthesuntakesplaceonlywhenthemooncomesunderthesun."[164]ChristianapologistTertullianbelievedtheeventwasdocumentedintheRomanarchives.[165] ColinHumphreysandW.G.WaddingtonofOxfordUniversityconsideredthepossibilitythatalunar,ratherthansolar,eclipsemighthavetakenplace.[166][167]Theyconcludedthatsuchaneclipsewouldhavebeenvisible,forthirtyminutes,fromJerusalemandsuggestedthegospelreferencetoasolareclipsewastheresultofascribewronglyamendingatext.HistorianDavidHenigedismissesthisexplanationas'indefensible'[168]andastronomerBradleySchaeferpointsoutthatthelunareclipsewouldnothavebeenvisibleduringdaylighthours.[169][170] InaneditionoftheBBCRadio4programmeInOurTimeentitledEclipses,FrankClose,EmeritusProfessorofPhysicsattheUniversityofOxford,statedthatcertainhistoricalsourcessaythatonthenightoftheCrucifixion"themoonhadrisenbloodred,"whichindicatesalunareclipse.HewentontoconfirmthatasPassovertakesplaceonthefullmooncalculatingbackshowsthatalunareclipsedidinfacttakeplaceonthenightofPassoveronFriday3April33ADwhichwouldhavebeenvisibleintheareaofmodernIsrael,ancientJudea,justaftersunset.[171] ModernbiblicalscholarshiptreatstheaccountinthesynopticgospelsasaliterarycreationbytheauthoroftheMarkGospel,amendedintheLukeandMatthewaccounts,intendedtoheightentheimportanceofwhattheysawasatheologicallysignificantevent,andnotintendedtobetakenliterally.[172]Thisimageofdarknessoverthelandwouldhavebeenunderstoodbyancientreaders,atypicalelementinthedescriptionofthedeathofkingsandothermajorfiguresbywriterssuchasPhilo,DioCassius,Virgil,PlutarchandJosephus.[173]GézaVermesdescribesthedarknessaccountastypicalof"JewisheschatologicalimageryofthedayoftheLord",andsaysthatthoseinterpretingitasadatableeclipseare"barkingupthewrongtree".[174] Templeveil,earthquakeandresurrectionofdeadsaints[edit] Thesynopticgospelsstatethattheveilofthetemplewastornfromtoptobottom. TheGospelofMatthewmentionsanaccountofearthquakes,rockssplitting,andtheopeningofthegravesofdeadsaints,anddescribeshowtheseresurrectedsaintswentintotheholycityandappearedtomanypeople.[Mt.27:51-53] IntheMarkandMatthewaccounts,thecenturioninchargecommentsontheevents:"TrulythismanwastheSonofGod!"[Mk.15:39]or"TrulythiswastheSonofGod!".[Mt.27:54]TheGospelofLukequoteshimassaying,"Certainlythismanwasinnocent!"[Lk.23:47][175] ThehistorianSextusJuliusAfricanusintheearlythirdcenturywrote,describingthedayofthecrucifixion,"Amostterribledarknessfelloveralltheworld,therocksweretornapartbyanearthquake,andmanyplacesbothinJudaeaandtherestoftheworldwerethrowndown.InthethirdbookofhisHistories,Thallosdismissesthisdarknessasasolareclipse...."[176] Awidespread6.3magnitudeearthquakehasbeenconfirmedtohavetakenplacebetween26and36AD.Thisearthquakewasdatedbycountingvarves(annuallayersofsediment)betweenthedisruptionsinacoreofsedimentfromEnGedicausedbyitandbyanearlierknownquakein31 BC.[177]TheauthorsconcludedthateitherthiswastheearthquakeinMatthewanditoccurredmoreorlessasreported,orelseMatthew"borrowed"thisearthquakewhichactuallyoccurredatanothertimeorsimplyinsertedan"allegoricalfiction". Medicalaspects[edit] Seealso:Crucifixion§ Causeofdeath AnumberoftheoriestoexplainthecircumstancesofthedeathofJesusonthecrosshavebeenproposedbyphysiciansandBiblicalscholars.In2006,MatthewW.MaslenandPiersD.Mitchellreviewedover40publicationsonthesubjectwiththeoriesrangingfromcardiacrupturetopulmonaryembolism.[178] Bronzino'sDepositionofChrist In1847,basedonthereferenceintheGospelofJohn(John19:34)tobloodandwatercomingoutwhenJesus'sidewaspiercedwithaspear,physicianWilliamStroudproposedtherupturedhearttheoryofthecauseofChrist'sdeathwhichinfluencedanumberofotherpeople.[179][180] ThecardiovascularcollapsetheoryisaprevalentmodernexplanationandsuggeststhatJesusdiedofprofoundshock.Accordingtothistheory,thescourging,thebeatings,andthefixingtothecrosswouldhaveleftJesusdehydrated,weak,andcriticallyillandthatthiswouldhaveledtocardiovascularcollapse.[181][182] WritingintheJournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociation,physicianWilliamEdwardsandhiscolleaguessupportedthecombinedcardiovascularcollapse(viahypovolemicshock)andexhaustionasphyxiatheories,assumingthattheflowofwaterfromthesideofJesusdescribedintheGospelofJohn[19:34]waspericardialfluid.[183] InhisbookTheCrucifixionofJesus,physicianandforensicpathologistFrederickZugibestudiedthelikelycircumstancesofthedeathofJesusingreatdetail.[184][185]Zugibecarriedoutanumberofexperimentsoverseveralyearstotesthistheorieswhilehewasamedicalexaminer.[186]Thesestudiesincludedexperimentsinwhichvolunteerswithspecificweightswerehangingatspecificanglesandtheamountofpulloneachhandwasmeasured,incaseswherethefeetwerealsosecuredornot.Inthesecasestheamountofpullandthecorrespondingpainwasfoundtobesignificant.[186] PierreBarbet,aFrenchphysician,andthechiefsurgeonatSaintJoseph'sHospitalinParis,[187]hypothesizedthatJesuswouldhavehadtorelaxhismusclestoobtainenoughairtoutterhislastwords,inthefaceofexhaustionasphyxia.[188]SomeofBarbet'stheories,e.g.,locationofnails,aredisputedbyZugibe. OrthopedicsurgeonKeithMaxwellnotonlyanalyzedthemedicalaspectsofthecrucifixion,butalsolookedbackathowJesuscouldhavecarriedthecrossallthewayalongViaDolorosa.[189][190] InanarticlefortheCatholicMedicalAssociation,PhillipBishopandphysiologistBrianChurchsuggestedanewtheorybasedonsuspensiontrauma.[191] In2003,historiansFPRetiefandL.CilliersreviewedthehistoryandpathologyofcrucifixionasperformedbytheRomansandsuggestedthatthecauseofdeathwasoftenacombinationoffactors.TheyalsostatethatRomanguardswereprohibitedfromleavingthesceneuntildeathhadoccurred.[192] Theologicalsignificance[edit] AdorationoftheMysticLamb(detailoftheGhentAltarpiece,JanvanEyck,c. 1432).ChristisrepresentedasthesacrificialLambofGod. ChristiansbelievethatJesus'deathwasinstrumentalinrestoringhumankindtorelationshipwithGod.[193][194]ChristiansbelievethatthroughJesus'deathandresurrection[195][196]peoplearereunitedwithGodandreceivenewjoyandpowerinthislifeaswellaseternallife.ThusthecrucifixionofJesusalongwithhisresurrectionrestoresaccesstoavibrantexperienceofGod'spresence,loveandgraceaswellastheconfidenceofeternallife.[197] Christologyofthecrucifixion[edit] Seealso:LambofGod PartofaseriesonChristology Concepts Christ(Messiah) SonofGodGodtheSon KyriosLogosIncarnation Pre-existenceofChrist PersonofChrist Hypostaticunion Consubstantiality LoveofChrist ImitationofChrist KnowledgeofChrist IntercessionofChrist PerfectionofChrist Threefoldoffice Doctrines Christologicaldoctrines Adoptionism Docetism DyoenergismMonoenergism DyothelitismMonothelitism DyophysitismMonophysitism Miaphysitism HomoousionismHomoiousianism Theopaschism Bydenomination LutheranChristology vte TheaccountsofthecrucifixionandsubsequentresurrectionofJesusprovidearichbackgroundforChristologicalanalysis,fromthecanonicalGospelstothePaulineepistles.[198]ChristiansbelieveJesus'sufferingwasforetoldintheOldTestament,suchasinPsalm22,andIsaiah53prophecyofthesufferingservant.[199] InJohannine"agentChristology"thesubmissionofJesustocrucifixionisasacrificemadeasanagentofGodorservantofGod,forthesakeofeventualvictory.[200][201]ThisbuildsonthesalvificthemeoftheGospelofJohnwhichbeginsinJohn1:29withJohntheBaptist'sproclamation:"TheLambofGodwhotakesawaythesinsoftheworld".[202][203]FurtherreinforcementoftheconceptisprovidedinRevelation21:14wherethe"lambslainbutstanding"istheonlyoneworthyofhandlingthescroll(i.e.thebook)containingthenamesofthosewhoaretobesaved.[204] AcentralelementintheChristologypresentedintheActsoftheApostlesistheaffirmationofthebeliefthatthedeathofJesusbycrucifixionhappened"withtheforeknowledgeofGod,accordingtoadefiniteplan".[205]Inthisview,asinActs2:23,thecrossisnotviewedasascandal,forthecrucifixionofJesus"atthehandsofthelawless"isviewedasthefulfillmentoftheplanofGod.[205][206] Paul'sChristologyhasaspecificfocusonthedeathandresurrectionofJesus.ForPaul,thecrucifixionofJesusisdirectlyrelatedtohisresurrectionandtheterm"thecrossofChrist"usedinGalatians6:12maybeviewedashisabbreviationofthemessageofthegospels.[207]ForPaul,thecrucifixionofJesuswasnotanisolatedeventinhistory,butacosmiceventwithsignificanteschatologicalconsequences,asin1Corinthians2:8.[207]InthePaulineview,Jesus,obedienttothepointofdeath(Philippians2:8)died"attherighttime"(Romans4:25)basedontheplanofGod.[207]ForPaulthe"powerofthecross"isnotseparablefromtheresurrectionofJesus.[207] However,thebeliefintheredemptivenatureofJesus'deathpredatesthePaulinelettersandgoesbacktotheearliestdaysofChristianityandtheJerusalemchurch.[208]TheNiceneCreed'sstatementthat"foroursakehewascrucified"isareflectionofthiscorebelief'sformalizationinthefourthcentury.[209] JohnCalvinsupportedthe"agentofGod"ChristologyandarguedthatinhistrialinPilate'sCourtJesuscouldhavesuccessfullyarguedforhisinnocence,butinsteadsubmittedtocrucifixioninobediencetotheFather.[210][211]ThisChristologicalthemecontinuedintothe20thcentury,bothintheEasternandWesternChurches.IntheEasternChurchSergeiBulgakovarguedthatthecrucifixionofJesuswas"pre-eternally"determinedbytheFatherbeforethecreationoftheworld,toredeemhumanityfromthedisgracecausedbythefallofAdam.[212]IntheWesternChurch,KarlRahnerelaboratedontheanalogythatthebloodoftheLambofGod(andthewaterfromthesideofJesus)shedatthecrucifixionhadacleansingnature,similartobaptismalwater.[213] Atonement[edit] Jesus'deathandresurrectionunderpinavarietyoftheologicalinterpretationsastohowsalvationisgrantedtohumanity.TheseinterpretationsvarywidelyinhowmuchemphasistheyplaceonthedeathofJesusascomparedtohiswords.[214]Accordingtothesubstitutionaryatonementview,Jesus'deathisofcentralimportance,andJesuswillinglysacrificedhimselfasanactofperfectobedienceasasacrificeoflovewhichpleasedGod.[215]BycontrastthemoralinfluencetheoryofatonementfocusesmuchmoreonthemoralcontentofJesus'teaching,andseesJesus'deathasamartyrdom.[216]SincetheMiddleAgestherehasbeenconflictbetweenthesetwoviewswithinWesternChristianity.EvangelicalProtestantstypicallyholdasubstitutionaryviewandinparticularholdtothetheoryofpenalsubstitution.LiberalProtestantstypicallyrejectsubstitutionaryatonementandholdtothemoralinfluencetheoryofatonement.BothviewsarepopularwithintheRomanCatholicChurch,withthesatisfactiondoctrineincorporatedintotheideaofpenance.[215] TheChurchofJesusChristofLatter-daySaintsteachesthatthecrucifixionofJesuswaspartoftheatonement."TheAtonementofJesusChrististheforeordainedbutvoluntaryactoftheOnlyBegottenSonofGod.Heofferedhislife,includinghisinnocentbody,blood,andspiritualanguishasaredeemingransom(1)fortheeffectoftheFallofAdamuponallmankindand(2)forthepersonalsinsofallwhorepent,fromAdamtotheendoftheworld.Latter-daySaintsbelievethisisthecentralfact,thecrucialfoundation,thechiefdoctrine,andthegreatestexpressionofdivineloveinthePlanofSalvation."[217] IntheRomanCatholictraditionthisviewofatonementisbalancedbythedutyofRomanCatholicstoperformActsofReparationtoJesusChrist[218]whichintheencyclicalMiserentissimusRedemptorofPopePiusXIweredefinedas"somesortofcompensationtoberenderedfortheinjury"withrespecttothesufferingsofJesus.[219]PopeJohnPaulIIreferredtotheseActsofReparationasthe"unceasingefforttostandbesidetheendlesscrossesonwhichtheSonofGodcontinuestobecrucified."[220] AmongEasternOrthodoxChristians,anothercommonviewisChristusVictor.[221]ThisholdsthatJesuswassentbyGodtodefeatdeathandSatan.Becauseofhisperfection,voluntarydeath,andresurrection,JesusdefeatedSatananddeath,andarosevictorious.Therefore,humanitywasnolongerboundinsin,butwasfreetorejoinGodthroughtherepentanceofsinandfaithinJesus.[222] Denialofcrucifixion[edit] Docetism[edit] InChristianity,docetismisthedoctrinethatthephenomenonofJesus,hishistoricalandbodilyexistence,andaboveallthehumanformofJesus,wasmeresemblancewithoutanytruereality.[223][224]BroadlyitistakenasthebeliefthatJesusonlyseemedtobehuman,andthathishumanformwasanillusion. NagHammadiManuscripts[edit] AccordingtotheFirstRevelationofJamesintheNagHammadilibrary,JesusappearedtoJamesafterapparentlybeingcrucifiedandstatedthatanotherpersonhadbeeninflictedinhisplace: "Themasterappearedtohim.Hestoppedpraying,embracedhim,andkissedhim,saying,“Rabbi,I’vefoundyou.Iheardofthesufferingsyouendured,andIwasgreatlytroubled.Youknowmycompassion.BecauseofthisIwished,asIreflecteduponit,thatIwouldneverseethesepeopleagain.Theymustbejudgedforwhattheyhavedone,forwhattheyhavedoneisnotright.” Themastersaid,“James,donotbeconcernedformeorthesepeople.Iamtheonewhowaswithinme.NeverdidIsufferatall,andIwasnotdistressed.Thesepeopledidnotharmme.Rather,allthiswasinflicteduponafigureoftherulers,anditwasfittingthatthisfigureshouldbe[destroyed]bythem."[225] Islam[edit] Mainarticle:IslamicviewsonJesus'death Seealso:JesusinIslam AllIslamictraditionscategoricallydenythatJesusphysicallydied,eitheronacrossoranothermanner. ThebelowQuranicversesaysJesuswasneitherkillednorcrucified: And[for]theirsaying,"Indeed,wehavekilledtheMessiah,JesusthesonofMary,themessengerofAllah."Andtheydidnotkillhim,nordidtheycrucifyhim;butrather,itwasmadetoappeartothemso.Andindeed,thosewhodifferoveritareindoubtaboutit.Theyhavenoknowledgeofitexceptthefollowingofassumption.Andtheydidnotkillhim,forcertain.(157)Rather,AllahraisedhimtoHimself.AndeverisAllahExaltedinMightandWise.(158)— Quran4:157–158[226] IslamictraditionsteachthatJesusascendedtoHeavenwithoutbeingputonthecross,butthatGodtransformedanotherpersontoappearexactlylikehimandtobethencrucifiedinsteadofhim.ThisviewisattestedinanaccountbyIrenaeusofthedoctrineofthe2nd-centuryAlexandrianGnosticBasilidesinwhichIrenaeusrefuteswhathebelievestobeaheresydenyingthedeath.[227] Gnosticism[edit] SomescripturesidentifiedasGnosticrejecttheatonementofJesus'deathbydistinguishingtheearthlybodyofJesusandhisdivineandimmaterialessence.AccordingtotheSecondTreatiseoftheGreatSeth,Yaldabaoth(theCreatorofthematerialuniverse)andhisArchonstriedtokillJesusbycrucifixion,butonlykilledtheirownman(thatisthebody).WhileJesusascendedfromhisbody,YaldabaothandhisfollowersthoughtJesustobedead.[228][229]InApocalypseofPeter,Petertalkswiththesaviorwhomthe"priestsandpeople"believedtohavekilled.[230] Manichaeism,whichwasinfluencedbyGnosticideas,adheredtotheideathatnotJesus,butsomebodyelsewascrucifiedinstead.[231]: 41 Jesussufferingonthecrossisdepictedasthestateoflightparticles(spirit)withinmatterinstead.[232] AccordingtoBogomilism,thecrucifixionwasanattemptbyLucifertodestroyJesus,whiletheearthlyJesuswasregardedasaprophet,Jesushimselfwasanimmaterialbeingthatcannotbekilled.Accordingly,LuciferfailedandJesus'sufferingsonthecrosswereonlyanillusion.[233] Others[edit] AccordingtosomeChristiansectsinJapan,JesusChristdidnotdieonthecrossatGolgotha.Insteadhisyoungerbrother,Isukiri,[234]tookhisplaceonthecross,whileJesusfledacrossSiberiatoMutsuProvince,innorthernJapan.OnceinJapan,hebecamearicefarmer,married,andraisedafamilywiththreedaughtersnearwhatisnowShingō.WhileinJapan,itisassertedthathetraveled,learned,andeventuallydiedattheageof106.Hisbodywasexposedonahilltopforfouryears.Accordingtothecustomsofthetime,Jesus'boneswerecollected,bundled,andburiedinamound.[235][236]ThereisalsoamuseuminJapanwhichclaimstohaveevidenceoftheseclaims.[237] InYazidism,Jesusisthoughtofasa"figureoflight"whocouldnotbecrucified.ThisinterpretationcouldbetakenfromtheQuranorGnostics.[238] Inart,symbolismanddevotions[edit] DetailofthecountenanceofChristjustdead,byJoséLujánPérez,1793,LasPalmasCathedral Mainarticle:Crucifixioninthearts SincethecrucifixionofJesus,thecrosshasbecomeakeyelementofChristiansymbolism,andthecrucifixionscenehasbeenakeyelementofChristianart,givingrisetospecificartisticthemessuchasEcceHomo,TheRaisingoftheCross,DescentfromtheCrossandEntombmentofChrist. TheCrucifixion,seenfromtheCrossbyTissotpresentedanovelapproachattheendofthe19thcentury,inwhichthecrucifixionscenewasportrayedfromtheperspectiveofJesus.[239][240] ThesymbolismofthecrosswhichistodayoneofthemostwidelyrecognizedChristiansymbolswasusedfromtheearliestChristiantimesandJustinMartyrwhodiedin165describesitinawaythatalreadyimpliesitsuseasasymbol,althoughthecrucifixappearedlater.[241][242]MasterssuchasCaravaggio,RubensandTitianhavealldepictedthecrucifixionsceneintheirworks. Devotionsbasedontheprocessofcrucifixion,andthesufferingsofJesusarefollowedbyvariousChristians.TheStationsoftheCrossfollowsanumberofstagesbasedonthestagesinvolvedinthecrucifixionofJesus,whiletheRosaryoftheHolyWoundsisusedtomeditateonthewoundsofJesusaspartofthecrucifixion. ThepresenceoftheVirginMaryunderthecross[Jn.19:26–27]hasinitselfbeenthesubjectofMarianart,andwellknownCatholicsymbolismsuchastheMiraculousMedalandPopeJohnPaulII'sCoatofArmsbearingaMarianCross.AndanumberofMariandevotionsalsoinvolvethepresenceoftheVirginMaryinCalvary,e.g.,PopeJohnPaulIIstatedthat"MarywasunitedtoJesusontheCross".[243][244]WellknownworksofChristianartbymasterssuchasRaphael(e.g.,theMondCrucifixion),andCaravaggio(e.g.,hisEntombment)depicttheVirginMaryaspartofthecrucifixionscene. BetrayalofChrist,stainedglass,Gotland,Sweden,1240 MateoCerezo,EcceHomo,1650 CarryingtheCrossfresco,Decanimonastery,Serbia,14thcentury OrthodoxCrucifixionicon,Athens,Greece CrucifixionofChrist,Michelangelo,1540 PrintoftheCrucifixion,madeattheendofthe16thcentury[245] CalvarybyPaoloVeronese,16thcentury Froma14th–15thcenturyWelshManuscript PietroLorenzettifresco,AssisiBasilica,1310–1329 DescentfromtheCross,Rubens(1616–17) DescentfromtheCross,Raphael,1507 Seealso[edit] Christianityportal Thepenitentthiefandimpenitentthief,crucifiedalongsideJesus Descriptionsinantiquityoftheexecutioncross Emptytomb FeastoftheCross FeastoftheSacredHeart LifeofJesusintheNewTestament SevenSorrowsofMary Swoonhypothesis References[edit] ^Eddy,PaulRhodesandGregoryA.Boyd(2007).TheJesusLegend:ACasefortheHistoricalReliabilityoftheSynopticJesusTradition.BakerAcademic.p. 172.ISBN 978-0801031144....ifthereisanyfactofJesus'lifethathasbeenestablishedbyabroadconsensus,itisthefactofJesus'crucifixion. ^ChristopherM.TuckettinTheCambridgecompaniontoJesuseditedbyMarkusN.A.Bockmuehl2001CambridgeUnivPressISBN 978-0-521-79678-1pp. 123–124 ^Funk,RobertW.;JesusSeminar(1998).TheactsofJesus:thesearchfortheauthenticdeedsofJesus.SanFrancisco:Harper.ISBN 978-0060629786. ^abJesusandtheGospels:AnIntroductionandSurveybyCraigL.Blomberg(2009)ISBN 0-8054-4482-3pp. 211–214 ^GrangerCook,John(2018)."Cross/Crucifixion".InHunter,DavidG.;vanGeest,PaulJ.J.;LietaertPeerbolte,BertJan(eds.).BrillEncyclopediaofEarlyChristianityOnline.LeidenandBoston:BrillPublishers.doi:10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000808.ISSN 2589-7993. ^abTheCradle,theCross,andtheCrown:AnIntroductiontotheNewTestamentbyAndreasJ.Köstenberger,L.ScottKellum2009ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3pp. 104–108 ^abEvans,CraigA.(2001).JesusandHisContemporaries:ComparativeStudiesISBN 0-391-04118-5p.316 ^abWansbrough,Henry(2004).JesusandtheOralGospelTraditionISBN 0-567-04090-9p.185 ^Davis,C.Truman(November4,2015)."APhysician'sViewoftheCrucifixionofJesusChrist".TheChristianBroadcastingNetwork.RetrievedSeptember1,2020. ^Matthew26:46–27:60;Mark14:43–15:45;Luke22:47–23:53;John18:3–19:42 ^StMark'sGospelandtheChristianfaithbyMichaelKeene(2002)ISBN 0-7487-6775-4pp. 24–25 ^Hawkin,DavidJ.(2004).Thetwenty-firstcenturyconfrontsitsgods:globalization,technology,andwar.SUNYPress.p. 121. ^Powell,MarkA.IntroducingtheNewTestament.BakerAcademic,(2009).ISBN 978-0-8010-2868-7 ^RezaAslan(2014).Zealot:TheLifeandTimesofJesusofNazareth.RandomHouse.ISBN 0812981480. ^Mark15:25 ^Mark15:34–37 ^Ehrman,BartD.(2009).Jesus,Interrupted.HarperCollins.ISBN 0-06-117393-2 ^Matthew27:33–"placecalledGolgotha(whichmeansPlaceofaSkull)";Mark15:22(sameasMatthew);Luke23:32–33–"placethatiscalledTheSkull";John19:17–"placecalledThePlaceofaSkull,whichinAramaiciscalledGolgotha" ^Matthew27:38;Mark15:27–28;Luke23:33;John19:18 ^Matthew27:37–"ThisisJesus,theKingoftheJews.";Mark15:26–"TheKingoftheJews.";Luke23:38–"ThisistheKingoftheJews."SomemanuscriptsaddinlettersofGreekandLatinandHebrew;John19:19–22–"JesusofNazareth,theKingoftheJews.""... itwaswritteninAramaic,inLatin,andinGreek." ^Matthew27:35–36;Mark15:24;Luke23:34;John19:23–24 ^Matthew27:50;Mark15:37;Luke23:46;John19:30 ^Matthew27:57–58;Mark15:42–43;Luke23:50–52;John19:38 ^Matthew27:59–60;Mark15:46;Luke23:53;John19:41–42 ^Matthew27:31–32;Mark15:20–21;Luke23:26 ^Matthew27:39–43;Mark15:29–32;Luke23:35–37 ^Matthew27:44;Mark15:32;Luke23:39 ^Matthew27:45;Mark15:33;Luke23:44–45 ^Matthew27:51;Mark15:38;Luke23:45 ^Matthew27:54;Mark15:39;Luke23:47 ^Matthew27:55–56;Mark15:40–41;Luke23:49 ^Matthew27:61;Mark15:47;Luke23:54–55 ^Matthew27:34;27:47–49;Mark15:23;15:35–36;John19:29–30 ^Mark15:45;John19:38 ^Matthew27:51;27:62–66 ^Ray,Steve."WhenWasJesusCrucified?HowLongontheCross?DotheGospelsContradictEachOther?".DefendersoftheCatholicFaith.RetrievedAugust10,2019. ^Mark15:25;15:44–45 ^Luke23:27–32;23:40–41;23:48;23:56 ^John19:31–37;19:39–40 ^John19:30–31;Mark16:1;Mark16:6 ^GezaVermes,TheResurrection(Penguin,2008),p.148. ^E.P.Sanders,TheHistoricalFigureofJesus(Penguin,1993),p.276. ^DonaldGuthrie,NewTestamentIntroduction(Intervarsity,1990),pp.125,366. ^abcdFunk,RobertW.andtheJesusSeminar(1998).TheActsofJesus:TheSearchfortheAuthenticDeedsofJesus.HarperSanFrancisco."Mark",pp. 51–161.ISBN 978-0060629786. ^abFunk,RobertW.andtheJesusSeminar(1998).TheActsofJesus:TheSearchfortheAuthenticDeedsofJesus.HarperSanFrancisco."Matthew,"pp. 129–270.ISBN 978-0060629786. ^abFunk,RobertW.andtheJesusSeminar(1998).TheActsofJesus:TheSearchfortheAuthenticDeedsofJesus.HarperSanFrancisco."Luke",pp. 267–364.ISBN 978-0060629786. ^Ehrman,BartD.(2005).MisquotingJesus:TheStoryBehindWhoChangedtheBibleandWhy.HarperCollins.ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4. ^Funk,RobertW.andtheJesusSeminar(1998).TheActsofJesus:TheSearchfortheAuthenticDeedsofJesus.HarperSanFrancisco."John",pp. 365–440.ISBN 978-0060629786. ^abInverse19:17and19:18,onlyathirdpersonpluralverbisused("they"),itisnotclearwhetherthisreferstothehighpriests(οἱἀρχιερεῖς)towhomPilatedeliveredJesusin19:15–16,ortothesoldiers(οὖνστρατιῶται)whocrucifiedJesusaccordingto19:23. ^InsomemanuscriptsofLuke,thesewordsareomitted.AnnotationNieuweBijbelvertaling(2004). ^abBasedonotherBiblicalverses,itisoftenconcludedthatthisMarywasJesus'ownmother,andthatJamesandJoses/Josephwerehisbrothers,seebrothersofJesus. ^abcEvidenceofGreekPhilosophicalConceptsintheWritingsofEphremtheSyrianbyUtePossekel1999ISBN 90-429-0759-2pp. 29–30 ^abcStudyingtheHistoricalJesus:EvaluationsoftheStateofCurrentResearcheditedbyBruceChilton,CraigA.Evans1998ISBN 90-04-11142-5pp. 455–457 ^abTheCradle,theCross,andtheCrown:AnIntroductiontotheNewTestamentbyAndreasJ.Köstenberger,L.ScottKellum2009ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3p.110 ^abJesusoutsidetheNewTestament:anintroductiontotheancientevidencebyRobertE.VanVoorst2000ISBN 0-8028-4368-9pp. 53–55 ^JesusandHisContemporaries:ComparativeStudiesbyCraigA.Evans2001ISBN 978-0-391-04118-9p.41 ^abTheissen1998,pp. 81–83 ^Dunn,James(2003).Jesusremembered.ISBN 0-8028-3931-2.p.141. ^abVanVoorst,RobertE(2000).JesusOutsidetheNewTestament:AnIntroductiontotheAncientEvidence.EerdmansPublishing.ISBN 0-8028-4368-9.pp. 39–42. ^Ferguson,Everett(2003).BackgroundsofEarlyChristianity.ISBN 0-8028-2221-5.p.116. ^Green,JoelB.(1997).TheGospelofLuke:newinternationalcommentaryontheNewTestament.GrandRapids,Mich.:W.B.EerdmansPub.Co.p. 168.ISBN 0-8028-2315-7. ^JesusasaFigureinHistory:HowModernHistoriansViewtheManfromGalileebyMarkAllanPowell,1998,ISBN 0-664-25703-8.p.33. ^JesusandHisContemporaries:ComparativeStudiesbyCraigA.Evans.2001.ISBN 0-391-04118-5.p.42. ^AncientRomebyWilliamE.Dunstan2010ISBN 0-7425-6833-4p.293 ^Tacitus'characterizationof"Christianabominations"mayhavebeenbasedontherumorsinRomethatduringtheEucharistritualsChristiansatethebodyanddrankthebloodoftheirGod,interpretingthesymbolicritualascannibalismbyChristians.References:AncientRomebyWilliamE.Dunstan2010ISBN 0-7425-6833-4p.293andAnintroductiontotheNewTestamentandtheoriginsofChristianitybyDelbertRoyceBurkett2002ISBN 0-521-00720-8p.485 ^PontiusPilateinHistoryandInterpretationbyHelenK.Bond2004ISBN 0-521-61620-4p.xi ^abEddy,Paul;Boyd,Gregory(2007).TheJesusLegend:ACasefortheHistoricalReliabilityoftheSynopticJesusTraditionBakerAcademic,ISBN 0-8010-3114-1p.127 ^JesusintheTalmudbyPeterSchäfer(2009)ISBN 0-691-14318-8pp.141and9 ^VanVoorst,RobertE.(2000).JesusOutsidetheNewTestament:AnIntroductiontotheAncientEvidence.Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.ISBN 0-8028-4368-9.pp. 177–118. ^GilStudent(2000)."TheJesusNarrativeInTheTalmud".Talmud:TheRealTruthAbouttheTalmud.RetrievedApril18,2018. ^L.Patterson,"OriginoftheNamePanthera",JTS19(1917–18),pp.79–80,citedinMeier,p.107n.48 ^abGeorgeW.BraswellJr.,WhatYouNeedtoKnowaboutIslamandMuslims,p.127(B&HPublishingGroup,2000).ISBN 978-0-8054-1829-3. ^Dunderberg,Ismo;ChristopherMarkTuckett;KariSyreeni(2002).Fairplay:diversityandconflictsinearlyChristianity:essaysinhonourofHeikkiRäisänen.Brill.p. 488.ISBN 90-04-12359-8.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Pagels,ElaineH.(2006).TheGnosticgospels.Phoenix.p. 192.ISBN 0-7538-2114-1. ^WilliamBarclay,GreatThemesoftheNewTestament.WestminsterJohnKnoxPress.2001.ISBN 978-0-664-22385-4.p.41. ^"St.IgnatiusofAntiochtotheSmyrnaeans(Roberts-Donaldsontranslation)".www.earlychristianwritings.com. ^abJesusRememberedbyJamesD.G.Dunn(2003)ISBN 0-8028-3931-2p.339 ^JesusofNazarethbyPaulVerhoeven(2010)ISBN 1-58322-905-1p.39 ^ABriefIntroductiontotheNewTestamentbyBartD.Ehrman(2008)ISBN 0-19-536934-3p.136 ^Crossan,JohnDominic(1995).Jesus:ARevolutionaryBiography.HarperOne.p. 145.ISBN 0-06-061662-8.Thathewascrucifiedisassureasanythinghistoricalcaneverbe,sincebothJosephusandTacitus ...agreewiththeChristianaccountsonatleastthatbasicfact. ^TheCambridgeCompaniontoJesusbyMarkusN.A.Bockmuehl(2001)ISBN 0-521-79678-4p.136 ^JohnP.Meier"HowdowedecidewhatcomesfromJesus"inTheHistoricalJesusinRecentResearchbyJamesD.G.DunnandScotMcKnight(2006)ISBN 1-57506-100-7pp. 126–128 ^JohnP.Meier"HowdowedecidewhatcomesfromJesus"inTheHistoricalJesusinRecentResearchbyJamesD.G.DunnandScotMcKnight(2006)ISBN 1-57506-100-7pp. 132–136 ^abACenturyofTheologicalandReligiousStudiesinBritain,1902–2007byErnestNicholson2004ISBN 0-19-726305-4pp. 125–126Link126 ^DavidFreedman(2000),EerdmansDictionaryoftheBible,ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4,p.299. ^"ArchaeologyandtheNewTestament".www.leaderu.com. ^"Crucifixion".AllAboutJesusChrist.org. ^Lémonon,J.P.(1981).PilateetlegouvernementdelaJudée:textesetmonuments,Étudesbibliques.Paris:Gabalda.pp. 29–32. ^PaulL.Maier"TheDateoftheNativityandChronologyofJesus"inChronos,kairos,Christos:nativityandchronologicalstudiesbyJerryVardaman,EdwinM.Yamauchi1989ISBN 0-931464-50-1pp.113–129 ^TheCradle,theCross,andtheCrown:AnIntroductiontotheNewTestamentbyAndreasJ.Köstenberger,L.ScottKellum2009ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3p.114 ^Jesus&theRiseofEarlyChristianity:AHistoryofNewTestamentTimesbyPaulBarnett2002ISBN 0-8308-2699-8pp.19–21 ^RainerRiesner,Paul'sEarlyPeriod:Chronology,MissionStrategy,Theology(Wm.B.EerdmansPublishing,1998),p.58. ^Maier,P.L.(1968)."Sejanus,Pilate,andtheDateoftheCrucifixion".ChurchHistory.37(1):3–13.doi:10.2307/3163182.JSTOR 3163182.S2CID 162410612. ^Fotheringham,J.K.(1934)."Theevidenceofastronomyandtechnicalchronologyforthedateofthecrucifixion".JournalofTheologicalStudies.35(138):146–162.doi:10.1093/jts/os-XXXV.138.146. ^abc"Niswonger"whichmeantFriday"-GoogleSearch".www.google.com. ^TheCradle,theCross,andtheCrown:AnIntroductiontotheNewTestamentbyAndreasJ.Köstenberger,L.ScottKellum2009ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3pp.142–143 ^CyclopaediaofBiblical,theological,andecclesiasticalliterature:Volume7JohnMcClintock,JamesStrong–1894"... helayinthegraveonthe15th(whichwasa'highday'ordoubleSabbath,becausetheweeklySabbathcoincided ..." ^"Blomberg"Wednesdaycrucifixion"-GoogleSearch".www.google.ie. ^TheGospelofMark,Volume2byJohnR.Donahue,DanielJ.Harrington2002ISBN 0-8146-5965-9p.442 ^abcStevenL.Cox,KendellHEasley,2007HarmonyoftheGospelsISBN 0-8054-9444-8pp.323–323 ^DeathoftheMessiah,Volume2byRaymondE.Brown1999ISBN 0-385-49449-1pp.959–960 ^ColinHumphreys,TheMysteryoftheLastSupperCambridgeUniversityPress2011ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0,pp.188–190 ^NewTestamentHistorybyRichardL.Niswonger1992ISBN 0-310-31201-9pp.173–174 ^TheCradle,theCross,andtheCrown:AnIntroductiontotheNewTestamentbyAndreasJ.Köstenberger,L.ScottKellum2009ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3p.538 ^Matthew27:32,Mark15:21,Luke23:26 ^Luke23:46and23:55 ^LaviniaCohn-Sherbok,Who'swhoinChristianity,(Routledge1998),p.303. ^NotesandQueries,VolumeJuly6–December1852,London,page252 ^TheArchaeologicaljournal(UK),Volume7,1850p.413 ^"CATHOLICENCYCLOPEDIA:St.Veronica".www.newadvent.org. ^AlbanButler,2000LivesoftheSaintsISBN 0-86012-256-5p.84 ^EusebiusofCaesarea.Onomasticon(ConcerningthePlaceNamesinSacredScripture). ^Matthew27:33;Mark15:22;Luke23:33;John19:17 ^EucheriusofLyon."LettertothePresbyterFaustus".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune13,2008.Thethreemorefrequentedexitgatesareoneonthewest,anotherontheeast,andathirdonthenorth.Asyouenterthecityfromthenorthernside,thefirstoftheholyplacesduetotheconditionofthedirectionsofthestreetsistothechurchwhichiscalledtheMartyrium,whichwasbyConstantinewithgreatreverencenotlongagobuiltup.Next,tothewestonevisitstheconnectingplacesGolgothaandtheAnastasis;indeedtheAnastasisisintheplaceoftheresurrection,andGolgothaisinthemiddlebetweentheAnastasisandtheMartyrium,theplaceoftheLord'spassion,inwhichstillappearsthatrockwhichonceenduredtheverycrossonwhichtheLordwas.ThesearehoweverseparatedplacesoutsideofMountSion,wherethefailingriseoftheplaceextendeditselftothenorth. ^"GeneralCharlesGordon'sLettersDiscussingHisDiscoveryof"Cavalry"inJerusalem".SMFPrimarySourceDocuments.ShapellManuscriptFoundation. ^Matthew27:41;cf.Mark15:31,Luke23:35 ^Mark15:27;Matthew27:38 ^Luke23:39–43 ^Luke23:36 ^Matthew27:54;cf.Mark15:39 ^Mark15:29;Matthew27:39 ^Mark15:35;Matthew27:45;cf.Luke23:35 ^Luke23:48 ^Luke23:49 ^John19:23–24,19:32–34 ^John19:26–27 ^Mark16:43–46,Matthew27:57–50,Luke23:50–53,John19:38 ^John19:39 ^HenryGeorgeLiddell;RobertScott."σταυρός".AGreek–EnglishLexicon–viaTuftsUniversity. ^CharltonT.Lewis;CharlesShort."ALatinDictionary".RetrievedJanuary15,2019–viaTuftsUniversity. ^Foradiscussionofthedateofthework,seeInformationonEpistleofBarnabasandAndrewC.Clark,"Apostleship:EvidencefromtheNewTestamentandEarlyChristianLiterature,"EvangelicalReviewofTheology,1989,Vol.13,p.380 ^JohnDominicCrossan,TheCrossthatSpoke(ISBN 978-0-06-254843-6),p.121 ^EpistleofBarnabas,9:7–8 ^"TheSpiritsaithtotheheartofMoses,thatheshouldmakeatypeofthecrossandofHimthatwastosuffer,thatunless,saithHe,theyshallsettheirhopeonHim,warshallbewagedagainstthemforever.Mosesthereforepiletharmsoneuponanotherinthemidstoftheencounter,andstandingonhighergroundthananyhestretchedouthishands,andsoIsraelwasagainvictorious"(EpistleofBarnabas,12:2–3). ^"PhilipSchaff:ANF01.TheApostolicFatherswithJustinMartyrandIrenaeus-ChristianClassicsEtherealLibrary".www.ccel.org. ^Irenaeus,AdversusHaereses,II,xxiv,4 ^TheInternationalStandardBibleEncyclopediabyGeoffreyW.Bromiley1988ISBN 0-8028-3785-9p.826 ^abEncyclopediaofBiblicalLiterature,Part2byJohnKitto2003ISBN 0-7661-5980-9p.591 ^abcRenaissanceart:atopicaldictionarybyIreneEarls1987ISBN 0-313-24658-0p.64 ^Thevisualarts:ahistorybyHughHonour,JohnFleming1995ISBN 0-8109-3928-2p.526 ^TheCrucifixionandDeathofaManCalledJesusbyDavidABall2010ISBN 1-61507-128-8pp.82–84 ^abTheChronologicalLifeofChristbyMarkE.Moore2007ISBN 0-89900-955-7pp. 639–643 ^HolmanConciseBibleDictionaryHolman,2011ISBN 0-8054-9548-7p.148 ^CrucifixionandtheDeathCryofJesusChristbyGeoffreyLPhelanMD,2009[ISBN missing]pp. 106–111 ^ThomasW.Walker,Luke,(WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,2013)p.84. ^"WhatisGalileanAramaic?|TheAramaicNewTestament".Aramaicnt.org.March31,2015.RetrievedJanuary15,2019. ^"MyGod,myGod,whyhaveyouforsakenme?".March31,2015. ^GezaVermes,ThePassion(Penguin,2005)p.75. ^GezaVermes,ThePassion(Penguin,2005)p.114. ^GezaVermes,ThePassion(Penguin,2005)p.122. ^RaymondBrown,TheDeathoftheMessiahVolumeII(Doubleday,1994)p.1051 ^JohnHaralsonHayes,BiblicalExegesis:ABeginner'sHandbook(WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,1987)pp.104–105.TheauthorsuggeststhispossiblywasdesignedtoplaydownthesufferingofJesusandreplaceacryofdesperationwithoneofhopeandconfidence,inkeepingwiththemessageoftheGospelinwhichJesusdiesconfidentthathewouldbevindicatedasGod'srighteousprophet. ^DavidAnderson-Berry,1871TheSevenSayingsofChristontheCross,Glasgow:Pickering&InglisPublishers ^Rev.JohnEdmunds,1855ThesevensayingsofChristonthecrossThomasHatchfordPublishers,London,p.26 ^ArthurPink,2005TheSevenSayingsoftheSaviourontheCrossBakerBooksISBN 0-8010-6573-9 ^SimonPeterLong,1966ThewoundedWord:AbriefmeditationonthesevensayingsofChristonthecrossBakerBooks ^JohnRossMacduff,1857TheWordsofJesusNewYork:ThomasStanfordPublishers,p.76 ^AlexanderWatson,1847ThesevensayingsontheCrossJohnMastersPublishers,London,p.5.ThedifferencebetweentheaccountsiscitedbyJamesDunnasareasontodoubttheirhistoricity.JamesG.D.Dunn,JesusRemembered,(Eerdmans,2003)pp. 779–781. ^Scott'sMonthlyMagazine.J.J.Toon;1868.TheMiraclesCoincidentWithTheCrucifixion,byH.P.B.pp.86–89. ^RichardWatson.AnApologyfortheBible:InaSeriesofLettersAddressedtoThomasPaine.CambridgeUniversityPress;2012.ISBN 978-1-107-60004-1.pp.81–. ^Harris,StephenL.,UnderstandingtheBible.PaloAlto:Mayfield.1985."John"pp. 302–310 ^EdwinKeithBroadheadProphet,Son,Messiah:NarrativeFormandFunctioninMark(Continuum,1994)p.196. ^Origen."ContraCelsum(AgainstCelsus),Book2,XXXIII". ^Donaldson,Coxe(1888).Theante-Nicenefathers.Vol. 6.NewYork:TheChristianLiteraturePublishingCo.p. 136. ^"Inthesamehour,too,thelightofdaywaswithdrawn,whenthesunattheverytimewasinhismeridianblaze.ThosewhowerenotawarethatthishadbeenpredictedaboutChrist,nodoubtthoughtitaneclipse.Youyourselveshavetheaccountoftheworld-portentstillinyourarchives."Tertullian."Apologeticum". ^ColinJ.HumphreysandW.G.Waddington,TheDateoftheCrucifixionJournaloftheAmericanScientificAffiliation37(March1985)[1]ArchivedApril8,2010,attheWaybackMachine ^ColinHumphreys,TheMysteryoftheLastSupperCambridgeUniversityPress2011ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0,p.193(HowevernotethatHumphreysplacestheLastSupperonaWednesday) ^Henige,DavidP.(2005).Historicalevidenceandargument.UniversityofWisconsinPress.ISBN 978-0-299-21410-4. ^Schaefer,B.E.(March1990).Lunarvisibilityandthecrucifixion.RoyalAstronomicalSocietyQuarterlyJournal,31(1),53–67 ^Schaefer,B.E.(July1991).Glareandcelestialvisibility.PublicationsoftheAstronomicalSocietyofthePacific,103,645–660. ^"BBCRadio4-inOurTime,Eclipses". ^BurtonL.Mack,AMythofInnocence:MarkandChristianOrigins(FortressPress,1988)p.296;GeorgeBradfordCaird,ThelanguageandimageryoftheBible(WestminsterPress,1980),p.186;JosephFitzmyer,TheGospelAccordingtoLuke,X–XXIV(Doubleday,1985)p.1513;WilliamDavidDavies,DaleAllison,Matthew:Volume3(Continuum,1997)p.623. ^DavidE.Garland,ReadingMatthew:ALiteraryandTheologicalCommentaryontheFirstGospel(Smyth&HelwysPublishing,1999)p.264. ^GézaVermes,ThePassion(Penguin,2005)pp.108–109. ^NewRevisedStandardVersion;NewInternationalVersionrenders"...thiswasarighteousman". ^GeorgeSyncellus,Chronography,chapter391. ^JeffersonWilliams,MarkusSchwabandAchimBrauer(July2012)."Anearlyfirst-centuryearthquakeintheDeadSea'".InternationalGeologyReview.54(10):1219–1228.Bibcode:2012IGRv...54.1219W.doi:10.1080/00206814.2011.639996.S2CID 129604597. ^MedicaltheoriesonthecauseofdeathinCrucifixionJRSocMedApril2006vol.99no.4185–188.[2]ArchivedSeptember12,2015,attheWaybackMachine ^WilliamStroud,1847,TreatiseonthePhysicalDeathofJesusChristLondon:HamiltonandAdams. ^WilliamSeymour,2003,TheCrossinTradition,HistoryandArtISBN 0-7661-4527-1 ^"TheSearchforthePhysicalCauseofChrist'sDeathBYUStudies".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonFebruary10,2009.RetrievedJanuary20,2009. ^ThePhysicalDeathOfJesusChrist,StudybyTheMayoClinicArchivedJanuary31,2009,attheWaybackMachinecitingstudiesbyBucklinR(ThelegalandmedicalaspectsofthetrialanddeathofChrist.SciLaw1970;10:14–26),Mikulicz-RadeekiFV(ThechestwoundinthecrucifiedChrist.MedNews1966;14:30–40),DavisCT(TheCrucifixionofJesus:ThepassionofChristfromamedicalpointofview.ArizMed1965;22:183–187),andBarbetP(ADoctoratCalvary:ThePassionofOutLordJesusChristasDescribedbyaSurgeon,EarlofWicklow(trans)GardenCity,NY,DoubledayImageBooks1953,pp.12–18,37–147,159–175,187–208). ^Edwards,WilliamD.;Gabel,WesleyJ.;Hosmer,FloydE;OnthePhysicalDeathofJesus,JAMAMarch21,1986,Vol255,No.11,pp.1455–1463[3] ^FrederickZugibe,2005,TheCrucifixionofJesus:AForensicInquiryEvansPublishing,ISBN 1-59077-070-6 ^JWHewitt,TheUseofNailsintheCrucifixionHarvardTheologicalReview,1932 ^ab"EXPERIMENTALSTUDIESinCRUCIFIXION".www.crucifixion-shroud.com. ^NewScientistOctober12,1978,p.96 ^Barbet,Pierre.DoctoratCalvary,NewYork:ImageBooks,1963. ^"KeithMaxwellMDontheCrucifixionofChrist".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary17,2011. ^"Jesus'SufferingandCrucifixionfromaMedicalPointofView".Southasianconnection.com.April7,2007.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune8,2019.RetrievedJanuary15,2019. ^"Metapress|AFastGrowingResourceforYoungEntrepreneurs".Metapress.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly9,2012. ^Retief,FP;Cilliers,L.(December2003)."Thehistoryandpathologyofcrucifixion".SouthAfricanMedicalJournal=Suid-AfrikaanseTydskrifvirGeneeskunde.93(12):938–841.PMID 14750495.RetrievedNovember3,2018. ^PaulII,PopeJohn(1994).CatechismoftheCatholicChurch.UrbiEtOrbiCommunications.p. 376.Online:https://books.google.com/books?id=tVJXcOVY2UgC ^Schwarz,Hans(1996).TrueFaithintheTrueGod:AnIntroductiontoLuther'sLifeandThought.Minneapolis:AugsburgFortress.pp. 47–48.Online:https://books.google.com/books?id=l3rDtUQRdKAC ^BenedictXVI,Pope(1987).PrinciplesofCatholicTheology:BuildingStonesforaFundamentalTheology.SanFrancisco:IgnatiusPress.pp. 17–18. ^Calvin,Jean(1921).InstitutesoftheChristianReligion.Philadelphia:PresbyterianBoardofPublicationandSabbath-SchoolWork.pp. 477–479.ISBN 9780664220280.Online:https://books.google.com/books?id=UU9Ygc_c5woC ^Kempis,Thomas(2005)."12:OntheRoyalRoadoftheHolyCross".TheInnerLife.NewYork:PenguinBooks.Online:https://books.google.com/books?id=13QRjJjhEqkC“IntheCrossissalvation;intheCrossislife;intheCrossisprotectionagainstourenemies;intheCrossisinfusionofheavenlysweetness;intheCrossisstrengthofmind;intheCrossisjoyofspirit;intheCrossisexcellenceofvirtue;intheCrossisperfectionofholiness.Thereisnosalvationofsoul,norhopeofeternallife,saveintheCross.” ^WhodoyousaythatIam?EssaysonChristologybyMarkAllanPowellandDavidR.Bauer1999ISBN 0-664-25752-6p.106 ^Cross,FrankL.;Livingstone,ElizabethA.(2005)."ThePassion".TheOxforddictionaryoftheChristianchurch.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress. ^TheChristologyoftheNewTestamentbyOscarCullmann1959ISBN 0-664-24351-7p.79 ^TheJohannineexegesisofGodbyDanielRathnakaraSadananda2005ISBN 3-11-018248-3p.281 ^JohannineChristologyandtheEarlyChurchbyT.E.Pollard2005ISBN 0-521-01868-4p.21 ^StudiesinEarlyChristologybyMartinHengel2004ISBN 0-567-04280-4p.371 ^StudiesinRevelationbyMartinRalphDeHaan,1998ISBN 0-8254-2485-2p.103 ^abNewTestamentchristologybyFrankJ.Matera1999ISBN 0-664-25694-5p.67 ^ThespeechesinActs:theircontent,context,andconcernsbyMarionL.Soards1994ISBN 0-664-25221-4p.34 ^abcdChristologybyHansSchwarz1998ISBN 0-8028-4463-4pp. 132–134 ^LordJesusChrist:DevotiontoJesusinEarliestChristianitybyLarryW.Hurtado(2005)ISBN 0-8028-3167-2pp. 130–133 ^ChristianTheologybyJ.GlyndwrHarris(2002)ISBN 1-902210-22-0pp. 12–15 ^Calvin'sChristologybyStephenEdmondson2004ISBN 0-521-54154-9p.91 ^TheReadingandPreachingoftheScripturesbyHughesOliphantOld2002ISBN 0-8028-4775-7p.125 ^TheLambofGodbySergeiBulgakov2008ISBN 0-8028-2779-9p.129 ^Encyclopediaoftheology:aconciseSacramentummundibyKarlRahner2004ISBN 0-86012-006-6p.74 ^Forexample,seeMatthew6:14–15.SeealsoSermonontheMount ^ab"DoctrineoftheAtonement".CatholicEncyclopedia. ^A.J.Wallace,R.D.RuskMoralTransformation:TheOriginalChristianParadigmofSalvation,(NewZealand:Bridgehead,2011)ISBN 978-1-4563-8980-2 ^"AtonementofJesusChrist–TheEncyclopediaofMormonism".eom.byu.edu. ^Ball,Ann(2003).EncyclopediaofCatholicDevotionsandPractices.Huntington,Ind.:OurSundayVisitor.ISBN 0-87973-910-X. ^"MiserentissimusRedemptor".EncyclicalofPopePiusXI.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonAugust12,2014. ^"Vaticanarchives".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMay2,2008. ^SeeDevelopmentoftheChristusVictorviewafterAulén ^Johnson,AlanF.;RobertE.Webber(1993).WhatChristiansBelieve:ABiblicalandHistoricalSummary.Zondervan.pp. 261–263. ^Brox1984,p. 306. ^Schneemelcher&Maurer1994,p. 220. ^Meyer,Marvin;Robinson,James(2009)."TheFirstrevelationofJames".TheNagHammadiScriptures:TheRevisedandUpdatedTranslationofSacredGnosticTextsCompleteinOneVolume(2009 ed.).HarperOne.ISBN 978-0061626005. ^Quran 4:157–158 ^"Whereforehedidnothimselfsufferdeath,butSimon,acertainmanofCyrene,beingcompelled,borethecrossinhisstead;sothatthislatterbeingtransfiguredbyhim,thathemightbethoughttobeJesus,wascrucified,throughignoranceanderror,whileJesushimselfreceivedtheformofSimon,and,standingby,laughedatthem.Forsincehewasanincorporealpower,andtheNous(mind)oftheunbornfather,hetransfiguredhimselfashepleased,andthusascendedtohimwhohadsenthim,deridingthem,inasmuchashecouldnotbelaidholdof,andwasinvisibletoall"(Irenaeus,AgainstHeresies,bookI,ch.24,4). ^JohnDouglasTurner,AnneMarieMcGuireTheNagHammadiLibraryAfterFiftyYears:Proceedingsofthe1995SocietyofBiblicalLiteratureCommemoration[inPhiladelphia]Brill1997ISBN 978-9004108240p.54 ^TuomasRasimusParadiseReconsideredinGnosticMythmaking:RethinkingSethianisminLightoftheOphiteEvidenceBrill,2009ISBN 978-9047426707p.13 ^JohnDouglasTurner,AnneMarieMcGuireTheNagHammadiLibraryAfterFiftyYears:Proceedingsofthe1995SocietyofBiblicalLiteratureCommemoration[inPhiladelphia]Brill1997ISBN 978-9004108240p.55 ^Gil,Moshe(1992)."TheCreedofAbū'Āmir".InJoelL.Kraemer(ed.).IsraelOrientalStudies.Vol. 12.pp. 9–58. ^WillisBarnstone,MarvinMeyerTheGnosticBible:RevisedandExpandedEditionShambhalaPublications2009ISBN 978-0-834-82414-0p.596 ^WillisBarnstone,MarvinMeyerTheGnosticBible:RevisedandExpandedEditionShambhalaPublications2009ISBN 978-0-834-82414-0p.751 ^"Metropolis–JapanTravel:JesusinJapan".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonAugust25,2006.RetrievedJanuary15,2019. ^Bartlett,Duncan(September9,2006)."Programmes|FromOurOwnCorrespondent|TheJapaneseJesustrail".BBCNews.RetrievedJanuary15,2019. ^"JesusInJapan–FT110".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch10,2007.RetrievedJanuary15,2019. ^"TheLittle-KnownLegendofJesusinJapan|History|Smithsonian".Smithsonianmag.com.January1,1970.RetrievedJanuary15,2019. ^ZeitschriftfürReligionswissenschaft.Jahrgang1997diagonal-VerlagUrsulaSpuler-StegemannDerEngelPfauzumSelbstvertändnisderYezidip.14(German) ^JamesTissot:theLifeofChristbyJudithF.Dolkart2009ISBN 1-85894-496-1p.201 ^Rookmaaker,H.R.(1970).ModernArtandtheDeathofaCulture.CrosswayBooks.p. 73.ISBN 0-89107-799-5. ^"CATHOLICENCYCLOPEDIA:Symbolism".www.newadvent.org. ^"CATHOLICENCYCLOPEDIA:VenerationofImages".www.newadvent.org. ^"MarywasUnitedtoJesusontheCross".EWTN.November1,1995.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly5,2019.RetrievedJanuary15,2019. ^"Vaticanwebsiteon'BeholdYourMother!'".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMay17,2009.RetrievedFebruary19,2009. ^"DeKruisiging".lib.ugent.be.RetrievedSeptember28,2020. Furtherreading[edit] Brox,Norbert(1984)."'Doketismus'–eineProblemanzeige".ZeitschriftfürKirchengeschichte.KohlhammerVerlag.95:301–314.ISSN 0044-2925. Cousar,CharlesB.(1990).ATheologyoftheCross:TheDeathofJesusinthePaulineLetters.FortressPress.ISBN 0-8006-1558-1. Dennis,John(2006)."Jesus'DeathinJohn'sGospel:ASurveyofResearchfromBultmanntothePresentwithSpecialReferencetotheJohannineHyper-Texts".CurrentsinBiblicalResearch.4(3):331–363.doi:10.1177/1476993X06064628.S2CID 170326371. Dilasser,Maurice(1999).TheSymbolsoftheChurch.ISBN 978-0-8146-2538-5. Green,JoelB.(1988).TheDeathofJesus:TraditionandInterpretationinthePassionNarrative.MohrSiebeck.ISBN 3-16-145349-2. Humphreys,ColinJ.;W.G.Waddington(December1983)."DatingtheCrucifixion".Nature.306(5945):743–746.Bibcode:1983Natur.306..743H.doi:10.1038/306743a0.S2CID 4360560. Rosenblatt,Samuel(December1956)."TheCrucifixionofJesusfromtheStandpointofPharisaicLaw".JournalofBiblicalLiterature.TheSocietyofBiblicalLiterature.75(4):315–321.doi:10.2307/3261265.JSTOR 3261265. McRay,John(1991).ArchaeologyandtheNewTestament.BakerBooks.ISBN 0-8010-6267-5. Samuelsson,Gunnar.(2011).CrucifixioninAntiquity.MohrSiebeck.ISBN 978-3-16-150694-9. Schneemelcher,Wilhelm;Maurer,Christian(1994)[1991]."TheGospelofPeter".InSchneemelcher,Wilhelm;Wilson,McLachlan(eds.).NewTestamentApocrypha:Gospelsandrelatedwritings.NewTestamentApocrypha.Vol. 1.WestminsterJohnKnoxPress.pp. 216–227.ISBN 978-0-664-22721-0.RetrievedApril25,2012. Sloyan,GerardS.(1995).TheCrucifixionofJesus.FortressPress.ISBN 0-8006-2886-1. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoCrucifixionofChrist,IconsofthecrucifixionofChristandPaintingsoftheCrucifixionofChrist. vteJesus Outline Listoftopics Chronology Annunciation Nativity Virginbirth Dateofbirth FlightintoEgypt Childhood Unknownyears Baptism Temptation Apostles selecting GreatCommission Ministry disciples SermonontheMount/Plain Beatitudes Prayers Lord'sPrayer Parables Miracles Transfiguration Homelessness GreatCommandment OlivetDiscourse Anointing Passion EntryintoJerusalem LastSupper FarewellDiscourse Agonyinthegarden Arrest Trial Crucifixion sayingsonthecross Burial tomb Resurrection appearances Ascension NewTestament Gospels Matthew Mark Luke John FiveDiscoursesofMatthew Gospelharmony Oralgospeltraditions LifeofJesusintheNewTestament HistoricalbackgroundoftheNewTestament NewTestamentplacesassociatedwithJesus NamesandtitlesofJesusintheNewTestament Historicity HistoricalJesus QuestforthehistoricalJesus Sources Josephus Tacitus MarabarSerapion Gospels Christmyththeory Depictions Bibliography Lifeinart Statues Transfiguration Christianity Christ Christianity Christology Incarnation PersonofChrist Pre-existence Relics SecondComing SessionofChrist CosmicChrist Inotherfaiths Jesuism Incomparativemythology Judaism IntheTalmud Islam Ahmadiyya Manichaeism JesustheSplendour Scientology MasterJesus Family Genealogies HolyKinship HolyFamily Mary(mother) Joseph(traditionalfather) Panthera(allegedfather) BrothersofJesus Anne(traditionalmaternalgrandmother) Joachim(traditionalmaternalgrandfather) Heli(paternalgrandfatherperLuke) Jacob(paternalgrandfatherperMatthew) Descendants Clopas(traditionaluncle) Related LanguageofJesus Interactionswithwomen MaryMagdalene RejectionofJesus Criticism Mentalhealth Raceandappearance Sexuality Category vteGospelofMatthewBible(NewTestament)Chapter Matthew1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Verses Matthew1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13:1–3 14 15 16:2b–3,19 27:1–12;52–66 28 Eventsandphrases Jesus'birth StarofBethlehem Magi FlightintoEgypt MassacreoftheInnocents ReturntoNazareth Kingdomofheaven Baptism Temptation Galileanministry Fishersofmen Beholdthebridegroom SermonontheMount Beatitudes Lord'sPrayer Goldenrule Calmingthestorm Feedingthemultitude Walkingonwater Transfiguration GreatCommandment OlivetDiscourse TenVirgins Anointing PassionofJesus LastSupper CrucifixionofJesus Burial Emptytomb Resurrection GreatCommission People Andrew Caiaphas Herod James Jeremiah JesusChrist John JohntheBaptist Joseph JudasIscariot Mary MaryMagdalene Matthew Philip PontiusPilate Rachel SimonPeter Thomas Zebedee Groups Angels Pharisees Sadducees Sanhedrin Places Bethany Bethlehem Bethsaida Capernaum Egypt Galilee Jerusalem JordanRiver Judea Samaria SeaofGalilee Related Qsource Msource GospelofMark Textualvariants Augustinianhypothesis Two-gospelhypothesis GenealogyofJesus FiveDiscoursesofMatthew Sources GreekText LatinVulgate WycliffeVersion KingJamesVersion AmericanStandardVersion WorldEnglishVersion Inpopularculture TheGospelAccordingtoSt.Matthew(1964film) Godspell(1971musical) Godspell(1973film) TheVisualBible:Matthew(1993film) ← BookofMalachi(chapter4)  Bibleportal Christianityportal GospelofMark(chapter1) → vteGospelofMarkBible(NewTestament) Mark1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Events Jesus'sBaptism Temptation Galileanministry Calmingthestorm Feedingthe5000 Walkingonwater Transfiguration GreatCommandment OlivetDiscourse Anointing PassionofJesus LastSupper Pilate'scourt Crucifixion Entombment/Burial Emptytomb Resurrection Phrases Nakedfugitive SayingsofJesusonthecross People Andrew Caiaphas HerodAntipas JesusChrist JohntheBaptist JosephofArimathea JudasIscariot Mary,motherofJames Mary,motherofJesus MaryMagdalene Philip PontiusPilate Rufus Salome SimonofCyrene SimonPeter Thomas Zebedee Groups Pharisees Sadducees Samaritans Sanhedrin Places Bethany Bethsaida Capernaum Dalmanutha Galilee Jerusalem JordanRiver Judea Nazareth Samaria SeaofGalilee Related MarktheEvangelist JohnMark Textualvariants Marcanpriority two-sourcehypothesis three-sourcehypothesis MessianicSecret Sources GreekText LatinVulgate WycliffeVersion KingJamesVersion AmericanStandardVersion WorldEnglishVersion ← GospelofMatthew(chapter28)  Bibleportal Christianityportal GospelofLuke(chapter1) → vteGospelofLukeBible(NewTestament)Chapter Luke1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Verse Luke22:43–44 Events AnnunciationtoMary,Elizabeth,andtheshepherds Adorationofshepherds JohntheBaptist'sBirth CensusofQuirinius Jesus'Birth CircumcisionandPresentationattheTemple FindingintheTemple Genealogy Baptism Temptation CallingofMatthew Countingthecost SermononthePlain Beatitudes Calmingthestorm Feedingthe5000 Transfiguration GreatCommandment Lord'sPrayer Prodigalson OlivetDiscourse PassionofJesus LastSupper Pilate'scourt Crucifixion Burial Emptytomb Resurrection Ascension Phrases Benedictus Fishersofmen Magnificat NewWineintoOldWineskins Nuncdimittis(SongofSimeon) People Abijah Andrew Anna Annas Augustus Caiaphas David Elisha Elizabeth Gabriel HerodAntipas HerodtheGreat JesusChrist JohntheBaptist Joseph JosephofArimathea JudasIscariot Lazarus Lysanias Martha Mary,motherofJesus MaryMagdalene Mary,sisterofMartha Naaman Philip(apostle) Philip(tetrarch) PontiusPilate Quirinius Simeon SimonPeter Theophilus Thomas TiberiusCaesar Zebedee Zechariah Groups Angels Pharisees Sadducees Samaritans Sanhedrin Seventydisciples Places Abilene Bethany Bethsaida Capernaum Decapolis Emmaus Galilee Iturea Jerusalem JordanRiver Judea Nain Samaria SeaofGalilee Trachonitis Related LuketheEvangelist AuthorshipofLuke–Acts GospelofMark Qsource Lsource Textualvariants Sources GreekText LatinVulgate WycliffeVersion KingJamesVersion AmericanStandardVersion WorldEnglishVersion ← GospelofMark(chapter16)  Bibleportal Christianityportal GospelofJohn(chapter1) → vteGospelofJohnBible(NewTestament)Chapter John1 BookofSigns 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 BookofGlory 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Epilogue:21 Verse John1:1–20;23;25–33;35–42 3:16 14:6 18:38 20:1–31 Events(chronological) WeddingatCana BreadofLifeDiscourse Feedingthe5000 Healingablindman Healingaparalytic Healingasickson Jesusandthewomantakeninadultery Walkingonwater RaisingofLazarus Anointing Footwashing PassionofJesus LastSupper FarewellDiscourse Crucifixion Burial Emptytomb ResurrectionofJesus Phrases Inthebeginning Logos DisciplewhomJesusloved DoubtingThomas Eccehomo FeastofDedication "Loveoneanother" Jesuswept Nolimetangere Quodscripsi,scripsi Thattheyallmaybeone Viaetveritasetvita Thetruthwillsetyoufree People Andrew Annas Caiaphas HerodAntipas JesusChrist JohntheBaptist JosephofArimathea JudasIscariot MotherofJesus Lazarus Malchus Martha MaryMagdalene Mary,sisterofMartha Nathanael Nicodemus Philip PontiusPilate SimonofCyrene SimonPeter SimontheLeper Thomas Zebedee Groups Angels Pharisees Sadducees Samaritans Sanhedrin Places Ænon Bethabara Bethany Bethsaida Cana Capernaum Galilee Jacob'sWell Jerusalem JordanRiver Judea Kidron Samaria SeaofGalilee Solomon'sPorch Sychar "IAM"sayings Iam(biblicalterm) BreadofLife LightoftheWorld GatefortheSheep GoodShepherd ResurrectioetVita Viaetveritasetvita TrueVine Related Authorship Johanninecommunity JohntheApostle JohntheEvangelist Johannineliterature HolySpirit Textualvariants Sources GreekText LatinVulgate WycliffeVersion KingJamesVersion AmericanStandardVersion WorldEnglishVersion Inpopularculture TheGospelofJohn(2003film) TheGospelofJohn(2014film) ← GospelofLuke(chapter24)  Bibleportal Christianityportal ActsoftheApostles(chapter1) → vteEasteranditscycleLentShrovetide Septuagesima Sexagesima Quinquagesima Carnival Cascarón Maslenitsa ShroveTuesday MardiGras HolyFaceofJesus Lentproper AshWednesday GreatLent TemptationofChrist FirstSundayofLent Emberdays SecondSundayofLent ThirdSundayofLent LaetareSunday Passiontide PassionSunday FridayofSorrows Music AveReginacaelorum Passion(music) Passionhymns StabatMater HolyWeekPalmSunday TriumphalentryintoJerusalem Ferias HolyMonday HolyTuesday HolyWednesday Triduum Tenebrae MaundyThursday ChrismMass LastSupper Art FarewellDiscourse MassoftheLord'sSupper Footwashing GoodFriday PassionofJesus ArmaChristi StationsoftheCross CrucifixionofJesus DescentfromtheCross Lamentation Epitaphios Pietà BurialofJesus TombofJesus EasterSepulchre GoodFridayprayer fortheJews Gorzkieżale HolySaturday HarrowingofHell Święconka EasterVigil Paschalcandle HolyFire LumenChristi Exsultet Artos RiteofChristianInitiationofAdults Traditions BurningofJudas Processions Bylocation Colombia Popayán Guatemala Italy BarcellonaPozzodiGotto RuvodiPuglia Malta Mexico Taxco Philippines Portugal Braga Spain Cuenca Málaga Salamanca SanCristóbaldeLaLaguna SantaCruzdeLaPalma Seville Valladolid Viveiro Zamora EasterDay ResurrectionofJesus Art Myrrhbearers RoadtoEmmaus PaschalHomily Sunriseservice Date Listofdates Calculation Ecclesiasticalnewmoon Ecclesiasticalfullmoon Epact Goldennumber Sardicapaschaltable DionysiusExiguus'Eastertable Controversy Quartodecimanism Gregoriancalendar Reformproposals SeasonLiturgicalfeatures Alleluia Pentecostarion Trikirion OctaveBrightWeek EasterSunday EasterMonday Śmigus-dyngus Easterwhip EasterTuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday SecondSundayofEaster DoubtingThomas DivineMercySunday Post-resurrectionappearancesofJesus Radonitsa ThirdSundayofEaster FourthSundayofEaster Mid-Pentecost FifthSundayofEaster SixthSundayofEaster Rogationdays Ascensiontide AscensionofJesus Art FeastoftheAscension Cenacle Novena SeventhSundayofEaster MatthiastheApostle Traditions Basket Bonnet Bunny Bilby Food Greeting Parade PaceEggplay Postcard Rouketopolemos Saitopolemos Scoppiodelcarro Eastereggs Dance Decorating inSlavicculture Rolling Hunt Osterbrunnen Tapping Tree Tossing Bycountry Croatia Poland Ukraine Bycountry EthiopiaandEritrea Latvia Poland Pre-Christian Ēostre Music EasterOratorio IWillMentiontheLoving-kindnesses RussianEasterFestivalOverture SalzburgEasterFestival Liturgical Reginacaeli Troparion Victimaepaschalilaudes Cantatas Bleibbeiuns,denneswillAbendwerden,BWV 6 ChristlaginTodesBanden,BWV 4 DerFriedeseimitdir,BWV 158 DerHimmellacht!DieErdejubilieret,BWV 31 EinHerz,dasseinenJesumlebendweiß,BWV 134 Erfreuteuch,ihrHerzen,BWV 66 Ichlebe,meinHerze,zudeinemErgötzen,BWV 145 Hymns ChristtheLordIsRisenToday JesusChristIsRisenToday Ofiliietfiliae TheStrifeisO'er,theBattleDone Film&TV Films Televisionepisodes PentecostSeasonOctave PentecostSunday Whitsun WhitMonday WhitTuesday Emberdays FeastofChristthePriest TrinitySunday FeastofCorpusChristi FeastoftheSacredHeart vteHistoryoftheCatholicChurchGeneral HistoryoftheCatholicChurch Bycountryorregion Ecclesiasticalhistory Timeline Papacy Papalprimacy Catholicecumenicalcouncils Firstseven CatholicBible Biblicalcanon Vulgate Crusadingmovement HistoryoftheRomanCuria Religiousinstitutes Christianmonasticism Catholicculture Art Roleincivilization VaticanCity PapalStates LatinChurch EasternCatholicChurches EarlyChurch(30–325/476)OriginsandApostolicAge(30–100) Jesus Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection GreatCommission HolySpirit Mary JohntheBaptist ApostlesintheNewTestament Commissioning Peter John Paul Stephen CouncilofJerusalem SplitwithJudaism NewTestament Background Gospels Acts Paulineepistles Generalepistles Revelation Ante-Niceneperiod(100–325) Persecution ChurchFathers ApostolicFathers PopeClementI Polycarp Ignatius Irenaeus JustinMartyr Canon Tertullian Origen Lateantiquity(313–476)GreatChurch(180–451)Romanstatechurch(380-451) ConstantinetheGreat Christianity Ariancontroversy ArchbasilicaofSaintJohnLateran OldSt.Peter'sBasilica FirstCouncilofNicaea PopeSylvesterI FirstCouncilofConstantinople Biblicalcanon Jerome Vulgate CouncilofEphesus CouncilofChalcedon EarlyMiddleAges BenedictofNursia Monasticism SecondCouncilofConstantinople PopeGregoryI Gregorianchant ThirdCouncilofConstantinople SaintBoniface ByzantineIconoclasm SecondCouncilofNicaea Charlemagne PopeLeoIII FourthCouncilofConstantinople East–WestSchism HighMiddleAges PopeUrbanII InvestitureControversy Crusades Universities Scholasticism FirstCounciloftheLateran SecondCounciloftheLateran ThirdCounciloftheLateran PopeInnocentIII LatinEmpire FrancisofAssisi FourthCounciloftheLateran Inquisition FirstCouncilofLyon SecondCouncilofLyon BernardofClairvaux LateMiddleAges ThomasAquinas PopeBonifaceVIII WesternSchism AvignonPapacy PopeClementV CouncilofVienne KnightsTemplar CatherineofSiena PopeAlexanderVI AgeofDiscovery ReformationCatholicReformation Reformation CatholicReformation ThomasMore PopeLeoX SocietyofJesus IgnatiusofLoyola FrancisXavier Dissolutionofthemonasteries CouncilofTrent PopePiusV TridentineMass TeresaofÁvila JohnoftheCross PeterCanisius PhilipNeri RobertBellarmine ThirtyYears'War BaroquePeriodtotheFrenchRevolution PopeInnocentXI PopeBenedictXIV SuppressionoftheSocietyofJesus AgeofEnlightenment Anti-clericalism PopePiusVI ShimabaraRebellion EdictofNantes DechristianizationofFranceduringtheFrenchRevolution 19thcentury PopePiusVII PopePiusIX DogmaoftheImmaculateConceptionoftheVirginMary OurLadyofLaSalette OurLadyofLourdes FirstVaticanCouncil Papalinfallibility PopeLeoXIII MaryoftheDivineHeart PrayerofConsecrationtotheSacredHeart Rerumnovarum 20thcentury PopePiusX OurLadyofFátima PersecutionsoftheCatholicChurchandPiusXII PopePiusXII PopePiusXII1942consecrationtotheImmaculateHeartofMary DogmaoftheAssumptionoftheVirginMary LateranTreaty Nazism PopeJohnXXIII SecondVaticanCouncil PopePaulVI PopeJohnPaulI MotherTeresa Communism PopeJohnPaulII WorldYouthDay 1995 21stcentury Sexualabusescandal Islam WorldYouthDay 2000 2002 2005 2008 2011 2013 2016 2019 PopeBenedictXVI PopeFrancis COVID-19pandemic  VaticanCityportal  Catholicismportal vteCatholicChurch Index Outline Glossary ListsofCatholics History(TimelineEcclesiasticalLegal)EarlyChurch Jesus Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection GreatCommission Apostles Succession Petrineprimacy Churchfathers Apostolicfathers Historyofthepapacy Primacy GreatChurch Ante-NicenePeriod Constantine Firstsevenecumenicalcouncils NicaeaI Chalcedon Lateantiquity Biblicalcanon Monasticism MiddleAges Islamicconquests PopeGregoryI PapalStates Schism(1054) InvestitureControversy Crusades Schism(1378) Inquisition Universities Scholasticism AgeofDiscovery Modernera Protestantism ProtestantReformation CatholicReformation Trent ThirtyYears'War Enlightenment FrenchRevolution Nazism VaticanII Communism Sexualabusescandal Islam COVID-19pandemic Theology(BibleTradition;Catechism)General God Trinity Kingdom Bodyandsoul Divinegrace Dogma NiceneCreed Originalsin Saints Salvation SermonontheMount TenCommandments Vulgate OfficialBible SixtineVulgate Sixto-ClementineVulgate NovaVulgata Worship Ecclesiology Communitasperfecta Councils Ecumenism Fourmarks Onetruechurch Catholic Infallibility CorporisChristi PeopleofGod Threestates Subsistitin Incanonlaw Sacraments Baptism Confirmation Eucharist Penance AnointingoftheSick Lastrites Holyorders Matrimony Mariology Assumption History ImmaculateConception Mariologyofthepopes Mariologyofthesaints MotherofGod Perpetualvirginity Veneration Seealso: Josephology Philosophy Naturallaw Moraltheology Personalism Socialteaching Philosophers Philosophyofcanonlaw Seealso: Science Evolution Separationofchurchandstate Relations Politics Saints HolyFamily Mary Joseph Patriarchs Prophets Archangels Martyrs DoctorsoftheChurch Evangelists Confessors Disciples Virgins Organisation(HierarchyCanonlawLaityPrecedenceBycountry)HolySee(Listofpopes) PopeFrancis PopeEmeritusBenedictXVI Ecumenicalcouncils CollegeofCardinals List Advisers RomanCuria Dicasteries SynodofBishops Properties VaticanCity Index Outline ApostolicPalace LateranTreaty RomanRota St.Peter'sBasilica SwissGuard VaticanMuseums Polity(Holyorders) Diocese Episcopalconference Eparchy Bishop Patriarch Major Primate Metropolitan Archbishop Diocesan Coadjutor Auxiliary Titular Emeritus Parish Priest Deacon Consecratedlife Religious: Superior Abbot,Abbess General Provincial Prior,Prioress GrandMaster Brother Friar Monk Sister Nun Hermit Novice Master Oblate Postulant Particularchurchessuiiuris LatinChurch EasternCatholicChurches Albanian Armenian Belarusian Bulgarian Chaldean Coptic CroatianandSerbian Eritrean Ethiopian Georgian Greek Hungarian Italo-Albanian Macedonian Maronite Melkite Romanian Russian Ruthenian Slovak Syriac Syro-Malabar Syro-Malankara Ukrainian Liturgicalrites Alexandrian Antiochian Armenian Byzantine EastSyriac Latin Ambrosian Braga Mozarabic Roman PaulVI Tridentine Anglican Zaire WestSyriac Malankara Culture Art Marian Artists Authors Churchbuildings Altarpieces Library Museums Music Distinctions Roleincivilisation Seealso: CriticismoftheCatholicChurch Anti-Catholicism Media HolySeePressOffice VaticanMedia VaticanNews VaticanTelevisionCenter VaticanRadio VaticanPolyglotPress L'OsservatoreRomano ActaApostolicaeSedis AnnuarioPontificio Religiousorders,institutes,societies Assumptionists Annonciades Augustinians Basilians Benedictines Bethlehemites Bluenuns Camaldoleses Camillians Carmelites Carthusians Cistercians Clarisses Conceptionists Crosiers Dominicans Franciscans GoodShepherdSisters Hieronymites Jesuits Mercedarians Minims Olivetans Oratorians Piarists Premonstratensians Redemptorists Servites Theatines Trappists Trinitarians Visitandines Associationsofthefaithful Confraternities Lay Marian Youth Workers Thirdorders SaintDominic LayCarmelites Discalced SaintFrancis Secular Militaryorders Fimcap CatholicAction CharismaticRenewal CommunionandLiberation Sant'Egidio Focolare InternationalAllianceofCatholicKnights Scouting LegionofMary NeocatechumenalWay OpusDei Schoenstatt Charities AidtotheChurchinNeed Caritas CatholicCharitiesUSA HomeMissions ReliefServices CIDSE PaxChristi SocietyofSaintVincentdePaul Seealso: Healthcare Schools Universities  CatholicChurchportal Category vteHistoryofChristianity EarlyCenters Centuries 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st OriginsandApostolicAge Background Jesus Baptism Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection GreatCommission HolySpirit ApostlesintheNewTestament JewishChristians PaultheApostle CouncilofJerusalem SplitwithJudaism NewTestament Gospels Acts Paulineepistles Generalepistles Revelation Ante-Niceneperiod Diversity Adoptionism Arianism Docetism Donatism Gnosticism Marcionism Montanism Canondevelopment Persecution Church/ApostolicFathers PopeClementI Polycarp Ignatius Irenaeus JustinMartyr Tertullian Origen Lateantiquity(GreatChurch) Constantine Constantinianshift Monasticism Councils NicaeaI NiceneCreed Athanasius Jerome Augustine ConstantinopleI EphesusI Chalcedon Biblicalcanon Catholicism Papacy Developmentofprimacy EasternOrthodoxopposition Crusadingmovement LateranIV ArtpatronageofJuliusII LeoX Counter-Reformation Trent Art CatholicReformation Jesuits Xavier ThomasMore Monasterydissolution Wars Massrocksandpriestholes Guadalupe Jansenists Molinists Neo-Scholasticism Teresa Modernism IndependentCatholics VaticanIandVaticanII Ecclesialcommunity Timeline EasternChristianity EasternOrthodoxy ChurchoftheEast OrientalOrthodoxy Chrysostom Nestorianism Icons Iconodulism Iconoclasm GreatSchism FallofConstantinople Armenia Georgia Greece Egypt Syriac Serbian Ethiopia Bulgaria OttomanEmpire Russia America MiddleAges Pelagianism GregoryI Celtic Germanic Scandinavian KievanRus' Investiture Anselm Abelard Bernard Bogomils Bosnian Cathars ApostolicBrethren Dulcinian Crusades Waldensians Inquisition EarlyScholasticism Christianmysticism Dominic Francis Bonaventure Aquinas FiveWays Wycliffe Avignon PapalSchism BohemianReformation Hus Conciliarism Synods ReformationandProtestantism Erasmus Eucharist Calvinist–Arminiandebate Arminianism Wars Resistancetheories Separationofchurchandstate Nicodemites HymnodyofcontinentalEurope Formalandmaterialprinciples Literature Protestantworkethic Lutheranism Luther 95Theses DietofWorms Theology Bible Melanchthon BookofConcord Orthodoxy Scholasticism Eucharist Art Calvinism Zwingli Calvin Huguenots Presbyterianism Scotland Knox TULIP Baptism LawandGospel Dort ThreeFormsofUnity Westminster Scholasticism Metricalpsalters Anglicanism Timeline HenryVIII Cranmer Elizabethan 39Articles Puritans CivilWar Churchmusic BookofCommonPrayer KingJamesVersion Anabaptism Theology RadicalReformation Grebel SwissBrethren Müntzer Martyrs'Synod MennoSimons Smyth MartyrsMirror Ausbund 1640–1789 Revivalism Missionaries Baptists Separationofchurchandstate Edictsoftoleration Congregationalism FirstGreatAwakening Methodism Millerism Pietism Fosteringofearlyexperimentalscience Neo-andOldLutherans 1789–present Campmeeting Holinessmovement SecondGreatAwakening Restorationists Jehovah'sWitnesses Mormonism Seventh-dayAdventist Adventism OxfordMovement Laestadianism FinnishAwakening Christianexistentialism ThirdGreatAwakening AzusaRevival Gospelmusic Fundamentalist–Modernistcontroversy Pacifism Ecumenism Fivesolae Jesusmovement Pentecostalism Charismatics Liberationtheology Reformedepistemology FourthGreatAwakening EvangelicalandMainlineProtestants Christianrightandleft PoliticalinfluenceofEvangelicalisminLatinAmerica Timeline Missions Martyrs Theology EasternOrthodoxy OrientalOrthodoxy Protestantism Catholicism vteChristianity Index Outline Glossary Prophets People ListsofChristians Bycountry Bible(Scriptures) Canon OldTestament NewTestament Foundations Church Creed Gospel NewCovenant Christiantradition Worship History(timeline)(spread)EarlyChristianity(centers) Jesus inChristianity Nativity Baptism Ministry SermonontheMount Crucifixion Resurrection GreatCommission Apostles Churchfathers Apostolicfathers GreatChurch Ante-Niceneperiod Lateantiquity Constantine Firstsevenecumenicalcouncils NicaeaI Chalcedon StatechurchoftheRomanEmpire Biblicalcanon MiddleAges Monasticism PapalStates East–WestSchism InvestitureControversy Crusades AgeofDiscovery Modernera ProtestantReformation CatholicReformation ThirtyYears'War Enlightenment FrenchRevolution Persecution: Communism Islam Influences Denominations(list,members)Western Catholic Protestant Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Calvinist Charismatic Evangelical Holiness Lutheran Methodist Pentecostal Quakers WesternRiteOrthodoxy Eastern EasternOrthodox OrientalOrthodox(Miaphysite) ChurchoftheEast(Nestorian) EasternCatholic Restorationist Jehovah'sWitnesses LatterDaySaintmovement IglesianiCristo Theology God Trinity Father Son HolySpirit Christology NiceneCreed Tradition Originalsin Salvation Bornagain Worship Mariology Theotokos Saints Angel Ecclesiology Fourmarks BodyofChrist Onetruechurch PeopleofGod Canonlaw Sacraments Baptism Eucharist Marriage Confirmation Penance AnointingoftheSick Holyorders Mission Ablution Hygiene Philosophy Naturallaw Ethics Science Evolution Politics Viewsonpovertyandwealth OtherFeaturesCulture Architecture Architectureofcathedralsandgreatchurches Art Jesus Mary Flag Literature Music Mythology Pilgrimage Churchbuildings Cathedrals Roleincivilization Seealso: Otherreligions CulturalChristians Criticism Persecution Movements Crusadingmovement Anarchism Charismatic Democracy Environmentalism Existentialism Fundamentalism Liberation Left/Right Mysticism Pacifism Prosperity Cooperation Christendom Ecumenism ChartaOecumenica WorldCouncilofChurches WorldEvangelicalAlliance Nondenominationalism  Christianityportal Category Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Israel UnitedStates Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion_of_Jesus&oldid=1091202580" Categories:CrucifixionofJesus1stcenturyinJerusalem30sintheRomanEmpireChristologyJesusandhistoryPassionofJesusPublicexecutionsSorrowfulMysteriesStationsoftheCrossHiddencategories:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslistPageswithmissingISBNsWebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataUsemdydatesfromApril2019PagesusingsidebarwiththechildparameterAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromMay2022ArticlescontainingLatin-languagetextArticlescontainingGreek-languagetextArticlescontainingAncientGreek(to1453)-languagetextArticlescontainingGerman-languagetextArticlescontainingAramaic-languagetextArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةAzərbaycancaবাংলাБеларускаяБългарскиCatalàЧӑвашлаČeštinaDanskEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskGaeilgeGalego한국어ՀայերենHrvatskiBahasaIndonesiaItalianoעבריתJawaKiswahiliLatinaLatviešuМакедонскиMalagasyമലയാളംმარგალურიBahasaMelayuNederlands日本語NorsknynorskپنجابیPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусскийSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaதமிழ்ไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوTiếngViệtYorùbá粵語中文 Editlinks