The base-superstructure: A model for analysis and action

The base-superstructure is a “spatial metaphor” that serves descriptive purposes [6]. While it can lend itself to a reading whereby what happens ... FacebookTwitterInstagramRSSNewbook!RevolutionaryEducation:TheoryandPracticeforSocialistOrganizersLearnmoreOrderacopyThebase-superstructure:AmodelforanalysisandactionbyDerekFordNov22,20214,403FundamentalsofMarxismTechnologySharethisarticle:PhotobyDarwinPeacock,Maklaan.Source:Wikicommons.AlthoughMarxhimselfonlymentionedthe“base”and“superstructure”in(bymycount)twoofhisworks,thebase-superstructure“problem”remainsasourceofseriouscontentionforMarxists,oursympathizers,andourcritics.DespiteitsoutsizedroleinMarxistdebates,themodelcan,whencontextualizedandunderstoodinitsnuances,bequiteusefulforanalyzingcapitalistsocietyandorganizingforsocialism[1].Marxexplicitlyintroducesthedistinctionbetweenthebaseandsuperstructureintheprefacetohis1859AContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy.Inthepreface,MarxbuildsonhispreviousworkwithEngels,TheGermanIdeology,writing:“Inthesocialproductionoftheirexistence,humansinevitablyenterintodefiniterelations,whichareindependentoftheirwill,namelyrelationsofproductionappropriatetoagivenstageinthedevelopmentoftheirmaterialforcesofproduction.Thetotalityoftheserelationsofproductionconstitutestheeconomicstructureofsociety,therealfoundation,onwhicharisesalegalandpoliticalsuperstructureandtowhichcorresponddefiniteformsofsocialconsciousness.Themodeofproductionofmateriallifeconditionsthegeneralprocessofsocial,politicalandintellectuallife.Itisnottheconsciousnessofmenthatdeterminestheirexistence,buttheirsocialexistencethatdeterminestheirconsciousness”[2].Thebaseofsociety—whichisalsotranslatedas“infrastructure”—includestherelationsofproductionandtheproductiveforces.Productiveforcesnamelabor-power,instrumentsortoolsusedbyworkers,andthematerialsworkerstransformintheproductionprocess.Therelationsofproductionentailthesocialorganizationofproductionandreproduction,orhowthere/productionoflifeisstructured.It’simportanttoemphasizethatthebaseisn’tjusttheforcesofproductionbutproductionrelations,whicharenotonlyeconomicbutsocial.Thesuperstructurecomprisesthepolitical-legalsystemofthestateandconsciousness—orideology—ingeneral,whichmanifestsincultureandart,religionandspirituality,ethicsandphilosophy,etc.Thesuperstructureemergesfromthetotalityoftherelationsofproduction.Politicalactivityandintellectualprocessesandproductsareconditionedbythemodeofproduction(therelationsandforcesofproduction).Andaswe’llseebelow,elementsofthesuperstructureinturnimpactthebase.AccordingtoEngels,heandMarxlaidsomuchemphasisontheimportanceofthebasebecauseoftheirhistoricalandmaterialcontext,becausetheywererespondingtothosewhodeniedtheimportanceofproduction.Inan1890lettertotheGermansocialistJosephBlochinwhichEngelsclarifiestheirmodel,henotesthat“wehadtoemphasizethemainprinciplevis-à-visouradversaries,whodeniedit”[3].Earlierintheletter,hewritesthat“theultimatelydeterminingfactorinhistoryistheproductionandreproductionofreallife,”andthat“ifsomebodytwiststhisintosayingthattheeconomicfactoristheonlydeterminingone,hetransformsthatpropositionintoameaningless,abstract,absurdphrase”[4].EngelsinfersthatBloch’squestionscomefromhisstudyofsecondaryliteratureonly,andheasksBlochtoreadtheprimarysources,referringhiminparticulartoMarx’s1852book,TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte,perhapstheonlyotherplaceMarxmentionedthesuperstructureexplicitly(althoughhealludestoitelsewhere).Inthisearlierwork,Marxformulatesthesuperstructurelikethis:“Uponthedifferentformsofproperty,uponthesocialconditionsofexistence,risesanentiresuperstructureofdistinctandpeculiarlyformedsentiments,illusions,modesofthought,andviewsoflife.Theentireclasscreatesandformsthemoutofitsmaterialfoundationsandoutofthecorrespondingrelations”[5].Classes,thatis,collectivesdefinedbytheirlocationinthetotalityofsocialproduction,producewaysoffeeling,thinking,andunderstandinglife.ThecontextandrelationsofthebaseandsuperstructureThatthemodelisn’tamechanicalformula—inwhichthebaseunidirectionallyproducesthesuperstructure—isevidentwhenweconsiderthecontextinwhichitappears.AContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomywastheproductofMarx’songoingworkonCapital.WhatweresomeofMarx’smaincritiquesofpoliticaleconomy?First,ittookappearancesforgrantedanddidn’taskabouttheunderlyingstructuresthatgeneratedsuchappearances.Second,itviewedpoliticaleconomyandtheworldasaseriesofindependentobjectsandsubjects,whentheywereinterconnectedandinterrelatedpartsofaunityortotalitythatwasinconstantmotion.Third,andasaresultofthefirsttwocritiques,itdidn’ttakeahistorical-materialistapproachtounderstandingthesetransformations,projectingpresentcategoriesbackintothepastandthefuture,sothatcapitalismasasocialsystemwasfiguredaseternal.ThosewhotakethebaseasindependentandstaticthussidewithMarx’sbourgeoisadversaries.It’snotaneconomisticformulainwhichchangesintheeconomyautomaticallyandpredictablyleadtochangesinsociety.Thebase-superstructureisa“spatialmetaphor”thatservesdescriptivepurposes[6].Whileitcanlenditselftoareadingwherebywhathappensbelowdetermineswhathappensontop,ifreadasaMarxistmodelit’shelpfulforunderstandingandanalyzingthedynamicsoftheclassstruggle.ThisiswhyMarxusedthesuperstructureinTheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte:to“distinguishstillmorethephrasesandfanciesofpartiesfromtheirrealorganismandtheirrealinterests,theirconceptionofthemselvesfromtheirreality”[7].Hegoesontopartiallylocatethefailureofthe1848Parisrevolutionandthesuccessofthe1851coupofLouis-NapoléonBonaparteintheemergenceofsocial-democracy,which“isepitomizedinthefactthatdemocratic-republicaninstitutionsaredemandedasameans,notofdoingawaywithtwoextremes,capitalandwagelabor,butofweakeningtheirantagonismandtransformingitintoharmony.Howeverdifferentthemeansproposedfortheattainmentofthisendmaybe,howevermuchitmaybetrimmedwithmoreorlessrevolutionarynotions,thecontentremainsthesame”[8].Thesocial-democraticforces,whileusingrevolutionaryphrasings,didn’tseektooverthrowtheexistingrelationsofproductionbuttomanagetheminamoreequitablemannerthroughthecapitalistpoliticalandlegalsuperstructure.Marxismandthebase-superstructuremodelGiventheabove,it’sclearthatthemodelisdialectical.Asahistorical-materialist,Marxunderstoodthatthebaseandsuperstructureofsocietychangeovertimeandarecontext-dependent.Neitherthebasenorsuperstructure,northerelationshipbetweenthetwo,areunified,static,orahistorical.TherelationsofproductioninU.S.capitalismareneitherunifiednorevenstrictlyeconomicinthesensethatthey’restructuredanddividedbyrace,nationality,gender,dis/ability,sexuality,andotherhierarchies.Engelsaffirmsthattherelationsofproductionaresocial(andracial)inan1894lettertotheGermananarchistWaltherBorgius.RespondingtoBorgius’requestforclarificationontheroleofthebase,Engelsacknowledgesthat“economicconditions…ultimatelydeterminehistoricaldevelopment.Butraceitselfisaneconomicfactor”[9].Clearlyraceispartofthebase,yetit’sobviouslysuperstructuralaswell,inthat1)raceisahistoricallyconstructedandevolvingcategoryand2)it’smaintainedandorderednotjustbyeconomicforcesandrelationsbutbyelementslikeculture,themedia,andthelegalsystem.Infact,Engelssoonaftersaysthat“political,juridical,philosophical,religious,literary,artistic,etc.,developmentisbasedoneconomicdevelopment.Butallthesereactupononeanotherandalsoupontheeconomicbase”[10].Theboundariesbetweenthebaseandsuperstructurearenotstaticorfixed,andsuperstructuralelementsinsocietyworktoreproduceelementsofthebase.Capitalismrequires,forexample,thelegalsystemofthestatetoenforceprivatepropertyrights.Inthisinstance,it’scrucialtothereproductionofthebase.Becausethecapitalistlegalsystemarisesfromcapitalistrelationsofproduction,changesinthelegalsystemmightaltertheexistingrelationsofproduction,buttheycan’tfundamentallyoverthrowthem,forthatrequiresthecreationofanewsocialandeconomicsystem.AlthoughMarxdidn’tspendmuchtimestudyingthepoliticaleconomyofculturalactivity,anotherexampleofthedynamismofthemodelappearsinhisargumentthatartistsandotherculturalworkersareproductiveagents.Hedistinguishesthosewhoproducesurplusvaluefromthosewhodon’t,althoughbothcanbeformsofwage-labor(forexample,workingforthestatedoesn’tproducesurplusvaluebutisaformoflabor-powersoldtoanother).Marxconceptualizesintellectualwork,dancing,writing,singing,andother“artistic”or“cultural”actions,whenperformedthroughthecommodityoflaborpower,asformsofwagelabor[11].Suchformsofworkcanthusbeviewedthroughtheprismofthebaseorsuperstructure.AllofthishighlightsthatthebaseandsuperstructureisametaphorandmodelforMarxists,awaytoanalyzeandapproachsocietyandsocialtransformationratherthananeasyexplanation.Smartphones:AnexampleTogetabetterhandleontherelationshipbetweenmaterialproductionandideasormentalconceptions,thinkabouttheproliferationof“smartphones.”When,inordertoe-mail,weusedtohavetositatacomputerandconnectviacablestotheinternet,wehadadifferentideaoftimeandcommunicationthanwedonowthatmanyofuscane-mailwhereverandwhenever.A2021PewResearchPollfoundthat85percentofpeopleoverall(and73percentofpeopleearninglessthan$30,000annually)intheU.S.havesmartphones,sothisisn’taminorphenomenon[12].Thetechnologymakesitpossibleforyourbosstorequireyoutorespondtoe-mails(e.g.,towork)atnight.Itblursthedistinctionbetweenworkandlife,letalonebetweenworkandleisure.Howmanyofusrespondtoworke-mailsonvacation?Thesmartphonemakesitpossibleformetoaskyouaminorquestionoraseriesofthemthroughouttheday,ratherthanwaitandtypeonesinglee-mail.Webegintothinkoftimedifferently,andwebegintorelatetoeachotherdifferently.WhenIwasastudent,forexample,itwasnormalforteacherstorespondtoe-mailswithinafewdays.Nowtheexpectationisthatteachersrespondwithinhours.Evenourfeelingsandbodieschange.Haveyoueverfeltyourphonevibrateinyourpocketonlytorealizeitdidn’t?Thisiscalled“phantomvibrationsyndrome.”A2011studyof290undergraduatestudentsfoundthataround“89%ofthesamplehadexperiencedphantomvibrations,and40%experiencedthesevibrationsatleastonceaweek”[13].Yetthesmartphonedidn’tarisespontaneously,itwasn’tdroppedfromtheheavens.Workersconceivedofit,designedit,producedit,andmadeitallpossible.It’saproductivematerialforcethatchangesourformsofconsciousness,waysoffeeling,sensesoftime,andmore.Yetthereasonsmartphoneswereproducedandsubsequentlydistributedthroughoutsocietyisbecausetheyincreasetheproductivityoflabor.Thesameobjectthat,whenusedforwork,entersintothebase,whenusedfornon-workpurposes,entersintothesuperstructure.UtilizingthemodelfortherevolutionarymovementThesocialistrevolutioncan’tcomewithoutchangingthebaseofsociety,asitentailstransformingprivateownershipintocollectiveownership,abolishingcapitalistrelationsandconstructingsocialistrelations.Butthesuperstructurereactsonthebaseandinformsit.There’sadynamicinterplaybetweenthetwo,andthequestionisnotsomuchwhatislocatedinwhichpartofthemodelaswhatisthemoststrategicallysignificantforadvancingtheclassstruggleinaparticularsetting?Theabolitionofwagelabor—thesocialistrevolution—hastofocusonthesuperstructureandthebaseandunderstandtheircomposition,contradictions,andpotentials.InthechapterontheworkingdayinCapital,Marxdescribesthedecades-longstrugglefora“normal”workingday.Hequoteshorrificdetailsabouttheabusesofindustrialcapitalismonworkersfromfactoryinspectors.Attheendofthechapterhedeclaresthat“thelabourersmustputtheirheadstogether,and,asaclass,compelthepassingofalaw,anall-powerfulsocialbarrierthatshallpreventtheveryworkersfromselling,byvoluntarycontractwithcapital,themselvesandtheirfamiliesintoslaveryanddeath.”Inotherwords,thetacticalobjectiveistoestablish“alegallylimitedworking-day”[14].Thisisaclarioncallforachangeinthesuperstructure,foralegalreform.It’sasignificantfighttoreducetheworkingday,notonlytoprotectworkersfromtheabusesofbossesbutalsotogiveworkersmoretimetoorganize.Atthesametime,itimpactsthebaseofsocietyaswell,becausegivenalimitedworkingday,capitalhastopursueotheravenuestoaccumulateextrasurplusvalue.Infact,it’swiththeselimitationsthatcapitalturnstotheproductionofrelativesurplusvalue,whichiswhencapitalismasamodeofproductionproperlycomesintobeing[15].AnotherexampleisMarx’scritiqueofAlfredDarimon,afollowerofProudhon,whowantedtointroducea“socialistform”ofmoneythatwouldrepresenttheactualtimethatworkerslabored.WhileMarxacknowledgedthat“oneform[ofmoney]mayremedyevilsagainstwhichanotherispowerless…aslongastheyremainformsofmoney”they’llreproducetheseevilselsewhereinthesamewaythat“oneformofwagelabourmaycorrecttheabusesofanother,butnoformofwagelabourcancorrecttheabuseofwagelabouritself”[16].Capitalismcan’tbeoverthrownwithoutchangingtherelationsofproduction.Revolutionsrequireobjectiveandsubjectiveconditions.Withoutchangesinmassconsciousness—whicharesuperstructuralbutrelatetoandimpactthebase—nocrisisofcapitalismwillleadtoanewmodeofproduction.Acrisisinthecapitalistsystemcan,inturn,helpchangethatconsciousness,butisnotinitselfsufficient.Neithercanbeviewedorapproachedinisolation,andhavetobeapproachedasinteractingwithintheshiftingtotalityofcapitalistsociety.Inresponsetotheseapproaches,ourtacticsandstrategieschange.References[1]ThankstoJonGreenwayforfeedbackonanearlierdraftofthisarticle.[2]Marx,Karl.(1859/1970).Acontributiontothecritiqueofpoliticaleconomy(NewYork:InternationalPublishers),20-21.[3]Engels,Friedrich.(1890/1965).“EngelstoJosephBloch.”InMarx-Engelsselectedcorrespondence(NewYork:ProgressPublishers),396.[4]Ibid.,394,396.[5]Marx,Karl.(1852/1972).TheeighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte(NewYork:InternationalPublishers),47.[6]Althusser,Louis.(1995/2014).Onthereproductionofcapitalism:Ideologyandideologicalstateapparatuses,trans.G.M.Goshgarian(NewYork:Verso),54.[7]Marx,TheeighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte,47.[8]Ibid.,50.[9]Engels,Friedrich.(1894/1965).“EngelstoW.BorgiusinBreslau.”InMarx-Engelsselectedcorrespondence(NewYork:ProgressPublishers),441.[10]Ibid.,441-442.[11]Marx,Karl.(1939/1990).“Appendix:Resultsoftheimmediateprocessofproduction.”InKarlMarx,Capital:Acritiqueofpoliticaleconomy(vol.1),trans.B.Fowkes(NewYork:Penguin),1044.[12]PewResearchCenter.(2021).“Mobilefactsheet.”PewResearchcenter,April7Availablehere.[13]Drouin,Michelle,DarenH.Kaiser,andDanielA.Miller.(2012).“Phantomvibrationsamongundergraduates:Prevalenceandassociatedpsychologicalcharacteristics.”ComputersinHumanBehavior28,no.4:1493.[14]Marx,Karl.(1867/1967).Capital:Acritiqueofpoliticaleconomy(vol.1):Acriticalanalysisofcapitalistproduction,trans.S.MooreandE.Aveling(NewYork:InternationalPublishers),285,286.[15]SeeMajidi,Mazda.(2021).“Relativesurplusvalue:Theclassstruggleintensifies.”LiberationSchool,18August.Availablehere.[16]Marx,Karl.(1939/1973).Grundrisse:Foundationsofthecritiqueofpoliticaleconomy(roughdraft),trans.M.Nicolaus(NewYork:Penguin),123.baseandsuperstructurehistoricalmaterialismideologyMarxisttheorypoliticaleconomyTheCommunistManifesto:Aworking-classguidetochangingtheworldbyLiberationSchoolEditor'snote:We'rerepublishingthisarticle,originallypostedin2008,onthe174thanniversaryofthepublicationoftheManifestooftheCommunistPartyincelebrationofRedBooksDay.TheCommunistManifestostandsamongthemostwell-readbooksofalltime....Understandingandfightinggentrification:ArevolutionaryorientationbyJoeTacheIntroductionCitiesacrosstheU.S.arerapidlytransforming.“Gentrification-style”luxurydevelopmentsarereplacingneighborhoodlandmarksandlow-incomehousing.Sky-highrentsarepus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