Dutch language - Wikipedia

In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the native official name for Dutch is Nederlands. Sometimes Vlaams ("Flemish") is used as well to describe Standard Dutch ... Dutchlanguage FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch WestGermaniclanguage Forotheruses,seeDutch(disambiguation). DutchNederlandsPronunciation[ˈneːdərlɑnts](listen)Native toNetherlandsandFlandersRegionNetherlands,Belgium,Suriname;AdditionallyinAruba,Curaçao,Indonesia,SintMaartenandFrenchFlandersEthnicity Dutch Flemings Indo Nativespeakers25million (2021)[1]Total(L1plusL2speakers):30million(2021)[2][3]LanguagefamilyIndo-European GermanicWestGermanicLowFranconian(Frankish)DutchEarlyformsFrankish OldDutch MiddleDutch Writingsystem Latin(Dutchalphabet) DutchBraille SignedformsSignedDutch(NmG)OfficialstatusOfficiallanguage in Belgium Netherlands Suriname EuropeanUnion Dependententities Aruba Curaçao SintMaarten Organisations Benelux EuropeanUnion SouthAmericanUnion CaribbeanCommunity Regulated byNederlandseTaalunie(DutchLanguageUnion)LanguagecodesISO639-1nlISO639-2dut (B)nld (T)ISO639-3nldDutch/FlemishGlottologmode1257Linguasphere52-ACB-aDutch-speakingworld(includedareareasofdaughterlanguageAfrikaans)DistributionoftheDutchstandardlanguageandLowFranconiandialectsinEuropeThisarticlecontainsIPAphoneticsymbols.Withoutproperrenderingsupport,youmayseequestionmarks,boxes,orothersymbolsinsteadofUnicodecharacters.ForanintroductoryguideonIPAsymbols,seeHelp:IPA. PlaymediaADutchspeaker Dutch(Nederlands[ˈneːdərlɑnts](listen))isaWestGermaniclanguagespokenbyabout25millionpeopleasafirstlanguage[4]and5millionpeopleasasecondlanguage,constitutingmostofthepopulationoftheNetherlands(whereitistheonlyofficiallanguagecountrywide)[5]andabout60%ofthepopulationofBelgium(asoneofthreeofficiallanguages).[2][3][6][7]ItisthethirdmostwidelyspokenGermaniclanguage,afteritscloserelativesEnglishandGerman. OutsidetheLowCountries,itisthenativelanguageofthemajorityofthepopulationofSurinamewhereitalsoholdsanofficialstatus,asitdoesinAruba,CuraçaoandSintMaarten,whichareconstituentcountriesoftheKingdomoftheNetherlandsandarelocatedintheCaribbean.HistoricallinguisticminoritiesonthevergeofextinctionremaininpartsofFrance[8]andGermany,andinIndonesia,[n1]whileuptohalfamillionnativespeakersmayresideintheUnitedStates,CanadaandAustraliacombined.[n2]TheCapeDutchdialectsofSouthernAfricahaveevolvedintoAfrikaans,amutuallyintelligibledaughterlanguage[n3]whichisspokentosomedegreebyatleast16millionpeople,mainlyinSouthAfricaandNamibia.[n4] DutchisoneoftheclosestrelativesofbothGermanandEnglish[n5]andiscolloquiallysaidtobe"roughlyinbetween"them.[n6]Dutch,likeEnglish,hasnotundergonetheHighGermanconsonantshift,doesnotuseGermanicumlautasagrammaticalmarker,haslargelyabandonedtheuseofthesubjunctive,andhaslevelledmuchofitsmorphology,includingmostofitscasesystem.[n7]FeaturessharedwithGermanincludethesurvivaloftwotothreegrammaticalgenders—albeitwithfewgrammaticalconsequences[n8]—aswellastheuseofmodalparticles,[9]final-obstruentdevoicing,andasimilarwordorder.[n9]DutchvocabularyismostlyGermanicandincorporatesslightlymoreRomanceloansthanGermanbutfarfewerthanEnglish.[n10] Contents 1Name 2History 2.1Origins 2.2Frankish(3rd–5thcentury) 2.3OldDutch(5th–12thcentury) 2.4MiddleDutch(12th–15thcentury) 2.5ModernDutch(15thcentury–present) 3Classification 4Dialects 4.1Dialectgroups 4.2Regionallanguages 4.2.1DutchLowSaxon 4.2.2Limburgish 4.3Daughterandsisterlanguages 5Geographicdistribution 5.1Europe 5.2AsiaandAustralasia 5.2.1Asia 5.2.2Australasia 5.3Americas 5.4Africa 6Phonology 6.1Consonants 6.2Vowels 6.3Diphthongs 6.4Phonotactics 6.5PolderDutch 7Grammar 7.1Verbsandtenses 7.2Gendersandcases 7.3Wordorder 7.4Diminutives 7.5Pronounsanddeterminers 7.6Compounds 8Vocabulary 9Spellingandwritingsystem 10Exampletext 11Seealso 12Notes 13Citations 14Generalreferences 15Externallinks Name[edit] Mainarticle:TerminologyoftheLowCountries InbothBelgiumandtheNetherlands,thenativeofficialnameforDutchisNederlands.[10][11]SometimesVlaams("Flemish")isusedaswelltodescribeStandardDutchinFlanders,whereasHollands("Hollandic")isoccasionallyusedasacolloquialtermforthestandardlanguageinthecentralandnorthwesternpartsoftheNetherlands.[12] EnglishistheonlylanguagetousetheadjectiveDutchforthelanguageoftheNetherlandsandFlandersorsomethingelsefromtheNetherlands.ThewordisderivedfromProto-Germanic*þiudiskaz.Thestemofthisword,*þeudō,meant"people"inProto-Germanic,and*-iskazwasanadjective-formingsuffix,ofwhich-ishistheModernEnglishform.[13]TheodiscuswasitsLatinisedform[14]andusedasanadjectivereferringtotheGermanicvernacularsoftheEarlyMiddleAges.Inthissense,itmeant"thelanguageofthecommonpeople".ThetermwasusedasopposedtoLatin,thenon-nativelanguageofwritingandtheCatholicChurch.[15]Itwasfirstrecordedin786,whentheBishopofOstiawritestoPopeAdrianIaboutasynodtakingplaceinCorbridge,England,wherethedecisionsarebeingwrittendown"tamLatinequamtheodisce"meaning"inLatinaswellascommonvernacular".[16][17][18] InnorthwesternWestFrancia(i.e.modernBelgium)thetermwouldtakeonanewmeaningduringtheEarlyMiddleAges,when,withinthecontextofahighlydichromaticlinguisticlandscape,itcametobetheantonymof*walhisk(Romance-speakers,specificallyOldFrench).[19]Theword,nowrenderedasdietsc(Southwesternvariant)orduutsc(CentralandNorthernVariant),couldrefertotheDutchlanguageitself,aswellasabroaderGermaniccategorydependingoncontext.DuringtheHighMiddleAges"Dietsc/Duutsc"wasincreasinglyusedasanumbrellatermforthespecificGermanicdialectsspokenintheLowCountries,itsmeaningbeinglargelyimplicitlyprovidedbytheregionalorientationofmedievalDutchsociety:apartfromthehigherechelonsoftheclergyandnobility,mobilitywaslargelystaticandhencewhile"Dutch"couldbyextensionalsobeusedinitsearliersense,referringtowhattotodaywouldbecalledGermanicdialectsasopposedtoRomancedialects,inmanycasesitwasunderstoodormeanttorefertothelanguagenowknownasDutch.[citationneeded][20] IntheLowCountriesDietschoritsEarlyModernDutchformDuytschasanendonymforDutchgraduallywentoutofcommonuseandwasgraduallyreplacedbytheDutchendonymNederlands.Thisdesignation(firstattestedin1482)startedattheBurgundiancourtinthe15thcentury,althoughtheuseofneder,laag,bas,andinferior("nether"or"low")torefertotheareaknownastheLowCountriesgoesbackfurtherintime,withtheRomansreferringtotheregionasGermaniaInferior("Lower"Germania).[21][22][23]ItisareferencetotheLowCountries'downriverlocationattheRhine–Meuse–ScheldtdeltaneartheNorthSea. From1551,thedesignationNederlandsreceivedstrongcompetitionfromthenameNederduytsch(literally"LowDutch",DutchbeingusedinitsarchaicsensecoveringallcontinentalWestGermaniclanguages).ItisacalqueoftheaforementionedRomanprovinceGermaniaInferiorandanattemptbyearlyDutchgrammarianstogivetheirlanguagemoreprestigebylinkingittoRomantimes.Likewise,Hoogduits("HighGerman")andOverlands("Upper-landish")cameintouseasaDutchexonymforthevariousGermandialects,usedinneighboringGermanstates.[24]UseofNederduytschwaspopularinthe16thcenturybutultimatelylostoutoverNederlandsduringthecloseofthe18thcentury,with(Hoog)DuytschestablishingitselfastheDutchexonymforGermanduringthissameperiod. Inthe19thcenturyGermanysawtheriseofthecategorisationofdialects,withGermandialectologiststermingtheGermandialectsspokeninthemountainoussouthofGermanyasHochdeutsch("HighGerman").Subsequently,GermandialectsspokeninthenorthweredesignatedasNiederdeutsch("LowGerman").ThenamesforthesedialectswerecalquedbyDutchlinguistsasNederduitsandHoogduits.Asaresult,NederduitsnolongerservesasasynonymfortheDutchlanguage.Inthe19thcentury,theterm"Diets"wasrevivedbyDutchlinguistsandhistoriansaswell,asapoeticnameforMiddleDutchanditsliterature.[25] History[edit] Mapofthepre-RomanIronAgeinNorthernEuropeculture(s)associatedwiththeProto-Germaniclanguage,ca500–50BCE.TheareasouthofScandinaviaistheJastorfculture. OldDutchcanbediscernedmoreorlessaroundthesametimeasOldEnglish(Anglo-Saxon),OldHighGerman,OldFrisian,andOldSaxon.Thesenamesarederivedfromthemodernstandardlanguages.Inthisagenostandardlanguageshadyetdeveloped,whileaperfectWestGermanicdialectcontinuumremainedpresent;thedivisionreflectsthecontingentfuturecontributiondialectgroupswouldhavetothelaterlanguages.TheearlyformofDutchwasasetofFranconiandialectsspokenbytheSalianFranksinthefifthcentury.ThesehappenedtodevelopthroughMiddleDutchtoModernDutchoverthecourseoffifteencenturies.[26]Duringthatperiod,theyforcedOldFrisianbackfromthewesterncoasttothenorthoftheLowCountries,andinfluencedorevenreplacedOldSaxonspokenintheeast(contiguouswiththeLowGermanarea).Ontheotherhand,Dutchhasbeenreplacedinadjacentlandsinpresent-dayFranceandGermany.ThedivisionintoOld,MiddleandModernDutchismostlyconventional,sincethetransitionbetweenthemwasverygradual.OneofthefewmomentswhenlinguistscandetectsomethingofarevolutioniswhentheDutchstandardlanguageemergedandquicklyestablisheditself.ThedevelopmentoftheDutchlanguageisillustratedbythefollowingsentenceinOld,MiddleandModernDutch: Irlôsinsolanfrithesêlamînafanthênthiaginâcontmi,wandaundermanagonhewasmitmi(OldDutch) Erlossensal[hi]invredesieleminevandiendiegenakenmi,wantondermenegenhiwasmetmi(MiddleDutch) Verlossenzalhijinvredezielmijnvandegenendiegenakenmij,wantondermenigenhijwasmetmij(ModernDutch,samewordorder) Hijzalmijnzielinvredeverlossenvandegenendiemijgenaken,wantondermenigenwashijmetmij(ModernDutch,defaultwordorder)[27] Hewilldelivermysoulinpeacefromthosewhoapproachme,because,amongstmany,hewaswithme(English)[28] Origins[edit] Mainarticle:HistoryoftheDutchlanguage ThedistributionoftheprimaryGermaniclanguagesinEuropeinaroundAD1:  NorthGermanic  NorthSeaGermanic,orIngvaeonic  Weser-RhineGermanic,orIstvaeonic  ElbeGermanic,orIrminonic  EastGermanic AmongtheIndo-Europeanlanguages,DutchisgroupedwithintheGermaniclanguages,meaningitsharesacommonancestorwithlanguagessuchasEnglish,German,andtheScandinavianlanguages.AllGermaniclanguagesaresubjecttotheGrimm'slawandVerner'slawsoundshifts,whichoriginatedintheProto-GermaniclanguageanddefinethebasicfeaturesdifferentiatingthemfromotherIndo-Europeanlanguages.Thisisassumedtohavetakenplaceinapproximatelythemid-firstmillenniumBCEinthepre-RomanNorthernEuropeanIronAge.[29] TheGermaniclanguagesaretraditionallydividedintothreegroups:East(nowextinct),West,andNorthGermanic.[30]TheyremainedmutuallyintelligiblethroughouttheMigrationPeriod.DutchispartoftheWestGermanicgroup,whichalsoincludesEnglish,Scots,Frisian,LowGerman(OldSaxon)andHighGerman.ItischaracterizedbyanumberofphonologicalandmorphologicalinnovationsnotfoundinNorthorEastGermanic.[31]TheWestGermanicvarietiesofthetimearegenerallysplitintothreedialectgroups:Ingvaeonic(NorthSeaGermanic),Istvaeonic(Weser-RhineGermanic)andIrminonic(ElbeGermanic).ItappearsthattheFrankishtribesfitprimarilyintotheIstvaeonicdialectgroupwithcertainIngvaeonicinfluencestowardsthenorthwest,whicharestillseeninmodernDutch. Frankish(3rd–5thcentury)[edit] Mainarticle:Frankishlanguage TheFrankishlanguageitselfisnotdirectlyattested,theonlypossibleexceptionbeingtheBergakkerinscription,foundneartheDutchcityofTiel,whichmayrepresentaprimaryrecordof5th-centuryFrankish.AlthoughsomeplacenamesrecordedinRomantextssuchasvadam(modernDutch:wad,English:"mudflat"),couldarguablybeconsideredastheoldestsingle"Dutch"words,theBergakkerinscriptionyieldstheoldestevidenceofDutchmorphology.However,interpretationsoftherestofthetextlackanyconsensus.[32] TheFranksemergedinthesouthernNetherlands(SalianFranks)andcentralGermany(RipuarianFranks),andlaterdescendedintoGaul.ThenameoftheirkingdomsurvivesinthatofFrance.AlthoughtheyruledtheGallo-Romansfornearly300years,theirlanguage,Frankish,becameextinctinmostofFranceandwasreplacedbylaterformsofthelanguagethroughoutLuxembourgandGermanyinaroundthe7thcentury.ItwasreplacedinFrancebyOldFrench(aRomancelanguagewithaconsiderableOldFrankishinfluence). However,theOldFranconianlanguagedidnotdieoutatlarge,asitcontinuedtobespokenintheLowCountries,andsubsequentlyevolvedintowhatisnowcalledOldLowFranconianorOldDutchintheLowCountries.Infact,OldFrankishcouldbereconstructedfromOldDutchandFrankishloanwordsinOldFrench.[33] OldDutch(5th–12thcentury)[edit] Mainarticle:OldDutch AreainwhichOldDutchwasspoken ThetermOldDutchorOldLowFranconian[34][35]referstothesetofFranconiandialects(i.e.WestGermanicvarietiesthatareassumedtohaveevolvedfromFrankish)spokenintheLowCountriesduringtheEarlyMiddleAges,fromaroundthe5thtothe12thcentury.[36]OldDutchismostlyrecordedonfragmentaryrelics,andwordshavebeenreconstructedfromMiddleDutchandOldDutchloanwordsinFrench.[37]OldDutchisregardedastheprimarystageinthedevelopmentofaseparateDutchlanguage.ItwasspokenbythedescendantsoftheSalianFrankswhooccupiedwhatisnowthesouthernNetherlands,northernBelgium,partofnorthernFrance,andpartsoftheLowerRhineregionsofGermany. TheHighGermanconsonantshift,movingoverWesternEuropefromsouthtowest,causedadifferentiationwiththeCentralandHighFranconianinGermany.Thelatterwouldasaconsequenceevolve(alongwithAlemannic,BavarianandLombardic)intoOldHighGerman.AtmoreorlessthesametimetheIngvaeonicnasalspirantlaw,movingoverWesternEuropefromwesttoeast,ledtothedevelopmentofOldEnglish(orAnglo-Saxon),OldFrisianandOldSaxon.Hardlyinfluencedbyeitherdevelopment,OldDutchprobablyremainedrelativelyclosetotheoriginallanguageoftheFranks.However,thelanguagedidexperiencedevelopmentsofitsown,suchasveryearlyfinal-obstruentdevoicing.Infact,thefindatBergakkerindicatesthatthelanguagemayalreadyhaveexperiencedthisshiftduringtheOldFrankishperiod. TheUtrechtbaptismalvow AttestationsofOldDutchsentencesareextremelyrare.Thelanguageismostlyrecordedonfragmentaryrelics,andwordshavebeenreconstructedfromMiddleDutchandloanwordsfromOldDutchinotherlanguages.[38]TheoldestrecordedisfoundintheSaliclaw.InthisFrankishdocumentwrittenaround510theoldestDutchsentencehasbeenidentified:Malthothiafriolito("Isaytoyou,Ifreeyou,serf")usedtofreeaserf.AnotheroldfragmentofDutchisViscflotaftarthemouuatare("Afishwasswimminginthewater").TheoldestconservedlargerDutchtextistheUtrechtbaptismalvow(776–800)startingwithForsachistudiobolae ...ecforsachodiabolae(litt.:"Forsakeyouthedevil? ...Iforsakethedevil").Ifonlyforitspoeticcontent,themostfamousOldDutchsentenceisprobablyHebbanollavogalanestashagunnan,hinasehicendatu,watunbidanwenu("Allbirdshavestartedmakingnests,exceptmeandyou,whatarewewaitingfor"),isdatedtoaroundtheyear1100,writtenbyaFlemishmonkinaconventinRochester,England.Sincethesentencespeakstotheimagination,itisoftenerroneouslystatedastheoldestDutchsentence. MiddleDutch(12th–15thcentury)[edit] Mainarticle:MiddleDutch OldDutchnaturallyevolvedintoMiddleDutch.Theyear1150isoftencitedasthetimeofthediscontinuity,butitactuallymarksatimeofprofuseDutchwriting;duringthisperiodarichMedievalDutchliteraturedeveloped.Therewasatthattimenooverarchingstandardlanguage;MiddleDutchisratheracollectivenameforanumberofcloselyrelated,mutuallyintelligibledialectsspokenintheformerOldDutcharea.WhereOldDutchfragmentsareveryhardtoreadforuntrainedModernDutchspeakers,thevariousliteraryworksofMiddleDutcharesomewhatmoreaccessible.[39]ThemostnotabledifferencebetweenOldandMiddleDutchisinafeatureofspeechknownasvowelreduction.Roundvowelsinword-finalsyllablesareratherfrequentinOldDutch;inMiddleDutch,suchvowelsareleveledtoaschwa. TheMiddleDutchdialectareaswereaffectedbypoliticalboundaries.Thesphereofpoliticalinfluenceofacertainruleroftenalsocreatedasphereoflinguisticinfluence,withthelanguagewithintheareabecomingmorehomogenous.Followingthecontemporarypoliticaldivisionstheyareinorderofimportance: WestFlemishwiththeCountyofFlandersatitscentre.IthadbeeninfluentialduringtheearlierMiddleAges(the"Flemishexpansion")butlostprestigetotheneighbouringBrabantianinthe13thcentury. Brabantian(andrelatedEastFlemish),spokenprimarilyintheDuchyofBrabantandadjacentparts.ItwasaninfluentialdialectduringmostoftheMiddleAges,duringtheso-called"Brabantianexpansion"inwhichtheinfluenceofBrabantwasextendedoutwardsintootherareas. Hollandic,whichhadtheCountyofHollandasitsheartland,whereoriginallyOldFrisianwasspoken.ThepeoplemixedwithFrankishsettlersfromFlandersandBrabantandanewFrankishdialectwithaFrisiansubstratedeveloped.ItwaslessinfluentialduringmostoftheMiddleAgesbutbecamemoresointhe16thcenturyduringthe"Hollandicexpansion";theEightyYears'WartookplaceintheSouthernNetherlandsduringthisperiod. Limburgish,spokenbythepeopleinthemodern-dayprovincesofDutchandBelgianLimburg,andadjacentlandsinGermany.Itwasovertimetiedtodifferentpoliticalareasandisthereforethemostdivergentofthedialects.ItwasevenpartlyinfluencedbytheHighGermanconsonantshiftandisthemostdistanttothelaterdevelopedstandardlanguagetowhichitcontributedlittle.Itwas,however,theearliestMiddleDutchdialectthatdevelopedaliterarytradition. SinceitispartoftheOldSaxonandnotLowFranconian(OldDutch)area,DutchLowSaxonisnotstrictlyaDutchdialect.However,itwasinfluencedbyMiddleDutchsincethe14thcenturyanditdidplayapartintheformationofthestandardDutchlanguageinlaterperiods.ItwasspokenintheOverstichtterritoriesoftheepiscopalprincipalityofUtrechtandadjacentpartsofGuelders.AdialectcontinuumremainedpresentwithFranconianareastothewestandLowSaxonareastotheeast. ModernDutch(15thcentury–present)[edit] TitlepageoftheStatenvertaling(1637)reads:Biblia[...]UytdeOorspronckelijcketaleninonseNeder-landtschetalegetrouwelijckover-geset.(English:FromtheOriginallanguagesintoourDutchlanguagefaithfullytranslated.[40] AprocessofstandardisationstartedintheMiddleAges,especiallyundertheinfluenceoftheBurgundianDucalCourtinDijon(Brusselsafter1477).ThedialectsofFlandersandBrabantwerethemostinfluentialaroundthistime.Theprocessofstandardisationbecamemuchstrongeratthestartofthe16thcentury,mainlybasedontheurbandialectofAntwerp.The1585fallofAntwerptotheSpanisharmyledtoaflighttothenorthernNetherlands,wheretheDutchRepublicdeclareditsindependencefromSpain.ThisinfluencedtheurbandialectsoftheprovinceofHolland.In1637,afurtherimportantstepwasmadetowardsaunifiedlanguage,[41]whentheStatenvertaling,thefirstmajorBibletranslationintoDutch,wascreatedthatpeoplefromalloverthenewrepubliccouldunderstand.Itusedelementsfromvarious,evenDutchLowSaxon,dialectsbutwaspredominantlybasedontheurbandialectsofHollandofpost16thcentury.[42] IntheSouthernNetherlands(nowBelgiumandLuxembourg),developmentsweredifferent.UndersubsequentSpanish,AustrianandFrenchrule,thestandardisationofDutchlanguagecametoastandstill.Thestate,law,andincreasinglyeducationusedFrench,yetmorethanhalftheBelgianpopulationwerespeakingavarietyofDutch.Inthecourseofthenineteenthcentury,theFlemishMovementstoodupfortherightsofDutchspeakers,mostlyreferredtoas"Flemish".However,thedialectvariationwasaseriousdisadvantageinthefaceofthestandardisedfrancophony.[43]Sincestandardisationisalengthyprocess,Dutch-speakingBelgiumassociateditselfwiththestandardlanguagethathadalreadydevelopedintheNetherlandsoverthecenturies.Therefore,thesituationinBelgiumisessentiallynodifferentfromthatintheNetherlands,althoughtherearerecognisabledifferencesinpronunciation,comparabletothepronunciationdifferencesbetweenstandardBritishandstandardAmericanEnglish.[44]In1980theNetherlandsandBelgiumconcludedtheLanguageUnionTreaty.Thistreatylaysdowntheprinciplethatthetwocountriesmustgeartheirlanguagepolicytoeachother,amongotherthings,foracommonsystemofspelling. Classification[edit] ThesimplifiedrelationbetweentheWestGermaniclanguages Indo-Europeanlanguages Germanic WestGermanic LowFranconian Dutch Afrikaans,Dutch-basedcreoles DutchbelongstoitsownWestGermanicsub-group,theLowFranconianlanguages,pairedwithitssisterlanguageLimburgishorEastLowFranconian.ItsclosestrelativeisthemutuallyintelligibledaughterlanguageAfrikaans.OtherWestGermaniclanguagesrelatedtoDutchareGerman,EnglishandtheFrisianlanguagesandtheun-standardisedlanguagesLowGermanandYiddish. DutchstandsoutincombiningsomeIngvaeoniccharacteristics(occurringconsistentlyinEnglishandFrisianandreducedinintensityfromwesttoeastoverthecontinentalWestGermanicplane)withdominantIstvaeoniccharacteristics,someofwhicharealsoincorporatedinGerman.UnlikeGerman,Dutch(apartfromLimburgish)hasnotbeeninfluencedatallbythesouthtonorthmovementoftheHighGermanconsonantshiftandhadsomechangesofitsown.[n11]Thecumulationofthesechangesresultedovertimeinseparate,butrelatedstandardlanguageswithvariousdegreesofsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthem.ForacomparisonbetweentheWestGermaniclanguages,seethesectionsMorphology,GrammarandVocabulary. Dialects[edit] Mainarticle:Dutchdialects DutchdialectsareprimarilythedialectsthatarebothrelatedwiththeDutchlanguageandarespokeninthesamelanguageareaastheDutchstandardlanguage.Althoughheavilyundertheinfluenceofthestandardlanguage,someofthemremainremarkably[citationneeded]diverseandarefoundintheNetherlandsandintheBrusselsandFlemishregionsofBelgium.Theareasinwhichtheyarespokenoftencorrespondwithformermediaevalcountiesandduchies.TheNetherlands(butnotBelgium)distinguishesbetweenadialectandastreektaal("regionallanguage").Thosewordsareactuallymorepoliticalthanlinguisticbecausearegionallanguageunitesalargegroupofverydifferentvarieties.SuchisthecasewiththeGroningsdialect,whichisconsideredavarietyoftheDutchLowSaxonregionallanguage,butitisrelativelydistinctfromotherDutchLowSaxonvarieties.Also,someDutchdialectsaremoreremotefromtheDutchstandardlanguagethansomevarietiesofaregionallanguageare.WithintheNetherlands,afurtherdistinctionismadebetweenaregionallanguageandaseparatelanguage,whichisthecasewiththe(standardised)WestFrisianlanguage.ItisspokenalongsideDutchintheprovinceofFriesland. Dutchdialectsandregionallanguagesarenotspokenasoftenastheyusedtobe,especiallyintheNetherlands.RecentresearchbyGeertDriessenshowsthattheuseofdialectsandregionallanguagesamongbothDutchadultsandyouthisinheavydecline.In1995,27percentoftheDutchadultpopulationspokeadialectorregionallanguageonaregularbasis,butin2011,thatwasnomorethan11percent.In1995,12percentofchildrenofprimaryschoolagespokeadialectorregionallanguage,butin2011,thathaddeclinedto4percent.OftheofficiallyrecognizedregionallanguagesLimburgishisspokenthemost(in2011amongadults54%,amongchildren31%)andDutchLowSaxontheleast(adults15%,children1%).ThedeclineoftheWestFrisianlanguageinFrieslandoccupiesamiddleposition(adults44%,children22%).Dialectsaremostoftenspokeninruralareas,butmanycitieshaveadistinctcitydialect.Forexample,thecityofGhenthasverydistinct"g","e"and"r"soundsthatgreatlydifferfromitssurroundingvillages.TheBrusselsdialectcombinesBrabantianwithwordsadoptedfromWalloonandFrench. Somedialectshad,untilrecently,extensionsacrossthebordersofotherstandardlanguageareas.Inmostcases,theheavyinfluenceofthestandardlanguagehasbrokenthedialectcontinuum.ExamplesaretheGroningsdialectspokeninGroningenaswellasthecloselyrelatedvarietiesinadjacentEastFrisia(Germany).SouthGuelderish(Zuid-Gelders)isadialectspokeninsouthernGelderland,thenortherntipofLimburg,andnortheastofNorthBrabant(Netherlands),butalsoinadjacentpartsofNorthRhine-Westphalia(Germany).Limburgish(Limburgs)isspokeninLimburg(Belgium)aswellasintheremainingpartofLimburg(Netherlands)andextendsacrosstheGermanborder.WestFlemish(Westvlaams)isspokeninWestFlanders,thewesternpartofZeelandicFlandersandalsoinFrenchFlanders,whereitvirtuallybecameextincttomakewayforFrench. Dialectgroups[edit] Dutchdialects  WestFlemish1.WestFlemishandZeeuwsFlemish2.Zeelandic  Hollandic3.SouthHollandic4.Westhoeks5.WaterlandsandVolendams6.Zaans7.Kennemerlands8.WestFrisian9.Bildts,Midslands,StadsfriesandAmelands  DutchLowSaxon10.Kollumerlands11.GroningsandNorthDrents12.Stellingwerfs13.MiddleDrents14.SouthDrents15.Twents16.Twents-Graafschaps17.Sallands,AchterhooksandUrks18.Veluws  EasternHollandic19.Utrechts-Alblasserwaards  Brabantian20.SouthGuelderish21.NorthBrabantianandNorthLimburgs22.Brabantian23.EastFlemish  Limburgish24.Limburgish  MiscellaneousFL.ProvinceFlevoland.Nodialectamajority,becauseofitsshortexistence.(PostWorldWarII)Theblankarea(nearzone9)speaksWestFrisian,aseparatelanguage. TheWestFlemishgroupofdialects,spokeninWestFlandersandZeeland,issodistinctthatitmightbeconsideredasaseparatelanguagevariant,althoughthestrongsignificanceoflanguageinBelgianpoliticswouldpreventthegovernmentfromclassifyingthemassuch.Anoddityofthedialectisthat,thevoicedvelarfricative(writtenas"g"inDutch)shiftstoavoicedglottalfricative(writtenas"h"inDutch),whiletheletter"h"becomesmute(likeinFrench).Asaresult,whenWestFlemingstrytotalkStandardDutch,theyareoftenunabletopronouncetheg-sound,andpronounceitsimilartotheh-sound.Thisleaves,forexample,nodifferencebetween"held"(hero)and"geld"(money).Orinsomecases,theyareawareoftheproblem,andhyper-correctthe"h"intoavoicedvelarfricativeorg-sound,againleavingnodifference.TheWestFlemishvarietyhistoricallyspokeninadjacentpartsinFranceissometimescalledFrenchFlemishandislistedasaFrenchminoritylanguage.However,onlyaverysmallandagingminorityoftheFrench-FlemishpopulationstillspeaksandunderstandsWestFlemish. HollandicisspokeninHollandandUtrecht,thoughtheoriginalformsofthisdialect(whichwereheavilyinfluencedbyaWestFrisiansubstratumand,fromthe16thcenturyon,byBrabantiandialects)arenowrelativelyrare.TheurbandialectsoftheRandstad,whichareHollandicdialects,donotdivergefromstandardDutchverymuch,butthereisacleardifferencebetweenthecitydialectsofRotterdam,TheHague,AmsterdamandUtrecht.InsomeruralHollandicareasmoreauthenticHollandicdialectsarestillbeingused,especiallynorthofAmsterdam.AnothergroupofdialectsbasedonHollandicisthatspokeninthecitiesandlargertownsofFriesland,whereitpartiallydisplacedWestFrisianinthe16thcenturyandisknownasStadsfries("UrbanFrisian").HollandictogetherwithinteraliaSouthGuelderishandNorthBrabantian,butwithoutStadsfries,aretheCentralDutchdialects. BrabantianisnamedafterthehistoricalDuchyofBrabant,whichcorrespondedmainlytotheprovincesofNorthBrabantandsouthernGelderland,theBelgianprovincesofAntwerpandFlemishBrabant,aswellasBrussels(whereitsnativespeakershavebecomeaminority)andtheprovinceofWalloonBrabant.BrabantianexpandsintosmallpartsinthewestofLimburgwhileitsstronginfluenceontheEastFlemishofEastFlandersandeasternZeelandicFlanders[45]weakenstowardsthewest.InasmallareainthenorthwestofNorthBrabant(Willemstad),Hollandicisspoken.Conventionally,theSouthGuelderishdialectsaredistinguishedfromBrabantian,buttherearenoobjectivecriteriaapartfromgeographytodoso.Over5millionpeopleliveinanareawithsomeformofBrabantianbeingthepredominantcolloquiallanguageoutofthearea's22millionDutch-speakers.[46][47] Limburgish,spokeninbothBelgianLimburgandNetherlandsLimburgandinadjacentpartsinGermany,isconsideredadialectinBelgium,whilehavingobtainedtheofficialstatusofregionallanguageintheNetherlands.LimburgishhasbeeninfluencedbytheRipuarianvarietiesliketheCologniandialect,andhashadasomewhatdifferentdevelopmentsincethelateMiddleAges. Regionallanguages[edit] Twodialectgroupshavebeengiventheofficialstatusofregionallanguage(orstreektaal)intheNetherlands.Likeseveralotherdialectgroups,botharepartofadialectcontinuumthatcontinuesacrossthenationalborder. DutchLowSaxon[edit] Mainarticle:DutchLowSaxon TheDutchLowSaxondialectareacomprisestheprovincesofGroningen,DrentheandOverijssel,aswellaspartsoftheprovincesofGelderland,Flevoland,FrieslandandUtrecht.Thisgroup,whichisnotLowFranconianbutinsteadLowSaxonandclosetoneighbouringLowGerman,hasbeenelevatedbytheNetherlands(andbyGermany)tothelegalstatusofstreektaal(regionallanguage)accordingtotheEuropeanCharterforRegionalorMinorityLanguages.ItisregardedasDutchforanumberofreasons.Fromthe14thto15thcenturyonward,itsurbancenters(Deventer,Zwolle,Kampen,ZutphenandDoesburg)havebeenincreasinglyinfluencedbythewesternwrittenDutchandbecamealinguisticallymixedarea.Fromthe17thcenturyonward,itwasgraduallyintegratedintotheDutchlanguagearea.[48]DutchLowSaxonusedtobeatoneendoftheLowGermandialectcontinuum.However,thenationalborderhasgivenwaytodialectboundariescoincidingwithapoliticalborder,becausethetraditionaldialectsarestronglyinfluencedbythenationalstandardvarieties.[49]Cross-the-borderdialectsnowseparatedbyaplaingapalsoincludeSouthGuelderishandLimburgishontheDutchsideoftheborderandMeuse-RhenishontheGermansideoftheborder.[50] Limburgish[edit] Mainarticle:Limburgish WhileasomewhatheterogeneousgroupofLowFranconiandialects,LimburgishhasreceivedofficialstatusasaregionallanguageintheNetherlandsandGermany,butnotinBelgium.Duetothisofficialrecognition,itreceivesprotectionbychapter2oftheEuropeanCharterforRegionalorMinorityLanguages. Daughterandsisterlanguages[edit] Afrikaans,althoughtoasignificantdegreemutuallyintelligiblewithDutch,isnotadialectbutaseparatestandardisedlanguage.ItisspokeninSouthAfricaandNamibia.AsadaughterlanguageofDutch,Afrikaansevolvedmainlyfrom17thcenturyDutchdialects,butwasinfluencedbyvariousotherlanguagesinSouthAfrica. WestFrisian(WesterlauwersFries),alongwithSaterlandFrisianandNorthFrisian,evolvedfromthesamebranchoftheWestGermaniclanguagesasOldEnglish(i.e.Anglo-Frisian)andarethereforegeneticallymorecloselyrelatedtoEnglishandScotsthantoDutch.Thedifferentinfluencesontherespectivelanguages,however,particularlythatofNormanFrenchonEnglishandDutchonWestFrisian,haverenderedEnglishquitedistinctfromWestFrisian,andWestFrisianlessdistinctfromDutchthanfromEnglish.AlthoughunderheavyinfluenceoftheDutchstandardlanguage,itisnotmutuallyintelligiblewithDutchandconsideredasisterlanguageofDutch,likeEnglishandGerman.[51] Geographicdistribution[edit] Seealso:DutchdiasporaandGeographicaldistributionofDutchspeakers ApproximatedistributionofnativeDutchspeakersworldwide.   Netherlands(70.8%)  Belgium(27.1%)  Suriname(1.7%)  Caribbean(0.1%)  Other(0.3%) DutchFirstLanguageSpeakers Country Speakers Year Netherlands 17,000,000[4] 2020 Belgium 6,500,000[4] 2020 Suriname 400,000[4] 2020 Curaçao 12,000[52] 2011 Aruba 6,000[53] 2010 CaribbeanNetherlands 3,000[54] 2018 SintMaarten 1,500[55] 2011 Totalworldwide 24,000,000 N/A DutchisanofficiallanguageoftheNetherlandsproper,Belgium,Suriname,theDutchCaribbeanmunicipalities(St.Eustatius,SabaandBonaire),Aruba,CuraçaoandSintMaarten.Dutchisalsoanofficiallanguageofseveralinternationalorganisations,suchastheEuropeanUnion,[56]UnionofSouthAmericanNations[57]andtheCaribbeanCommunity.Atanacademiclevel,Dutchistaughtinabout175universitiesin40countries.About15,000studentsworldwidestudyDutchatuniversity.[58] Europe[edit] InEurope,DutchisthemajoritylanguageintheNetherlands(96%)andBelgium(59%)aswellasaminoritylanguageinGermanyandnorthernFrance'sFrenchFlanders.ThoughBelgiumasawholeismultilingual,thefourlanguageareasintowhichthecountryisdivided(Flanders,francophoneWallonia,bilingualBrusselsandtheGerman-speakingCommunity)arelargelymonolingual.TheNetherlandsandBelgiumproducethevastmajorityofmusic,films,booksandothermediawrittenorspokeninDutch.[59]Dutchisamonocentriclanguage,atleastwhatconcernsitswrittenform,withallspeakersusingthesamestandardform(authorizedbytheDutchLanguageUnion)basedonaDutchorthographydefinedintheso-called"GreenBooklet"authoritativedictionaryandemployingtheLatinalphabetwhenwriting;however,pronunciationvariesbetweendialects.Indeed,instarkcontrasttoitswrittenuniformity,Dutchlacksauniqueprestigedialectandhasalargedialectalcontinuumconsistingof28maindialects,whichcanthemselvesbefurtherdividedintoatleast600distinguishablevarieties.[60][61]IntheNetherlands,theHollandicdialectdominatesinnationalbroadcastmediawhileinFlandersBrabantiandialectdominatesinthatcapacity,makingtheminturnunofficialprestigedialectsintheirrespectivecountries. OutsidetheNetherlandsandBelgium,thedialectspokeninandaroundtheGermantownofKleve(SouthGuelderish)ishistoricallyandgeneticallyaLowFranconianvariety.InNorth-WesternFrance,theareaaroundCalaiswashistoricallyDutch-speaking(WestFlemish),ofwhichanestimated20,000aredailyspeakers.ThecitiesofDunkirk,GravelinesandBourbourgonlybecamepredominantlyFrench-speakingbytheendofthe19thcentury.Inthecountryside,untilWorldWarI,manyelementaryschoolscontinuedtoteachinDutch,andtheCatholicChurchcontinuedtopreachandteachthecatechisminDutchinmanyparishes.[62] Duringthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,DutchwasbannedfromalllevelsofeducationbybothPrussiaandFranceandlostmostofitsfunctionsasaculturallanguage.InbothGermanyandFrance,theDutchstandardlanguageislargelyabsent,andspeakersoftheseDutchdialectswilluseGermanorFrenchineverydayspeech.DutchisnotaffordedlegalstatusinFranceorGermany,eitherbythecentralorregionalpublicauthorities,andknowledgeofthelanguageisdecliningamongyoungergenerations.[63] Asaforeignlanguage,DutchismainlytaughtinprimaryandsecondaryschoolsinareasadjacenttotheNetherlandsandFlanders.InFrench-speakingBelgium,over300,000pupilsareenrolledinDutchcourses,followedbyover23,000intheGermanstatesofLowerSaxonyandNorthRhine-Westphalia,andabout7,000intheFrenchregionofNord-Pas-de-Calais(ofwhich4,550areinprimaryschool).[64]Atanacademiclevel,thelargestnumberoffacultiesofneerlandistiekcanbefoundinGermany(30universities),followedbyFrance(20universities)andtheUnitedKingdom(5universities).[64][65] AsiaandAustralasia[edit] Asia[edit] DespitetheDutchpresenceinIndonesiaforalmost350 years,astheAsianbulkoftheDutchEastIndies,theDutchlanguagehasnoofficialstatusthere[66]andthesmallminoritythatcanspeakthelanguagefluentlyareeithereducatedmembersoftheoldestgeneration,oremployedinthelegalprofession,[67]ascertainlawcodesarestillonlyavailableinDutch.[68]DutchistaughtinvariouseducationalcentresinIndonesia,themostimportantofwhichistheErasmusLanguageCentre(ETC)inJakarta.Eachyear,some1,500to2,000studentstakeDutchcoursesthere.[69]Intotal,severalthousandIndonesiansstudyDutchasaforeignlanguage.[70]OwingtocenturiesofDutchruleinIndonesia,manyolddocumentsarewritteninDutch.ManyuniversitiesthereforeincludeDutchasasourcelanguage,mainlyforlawandhistorystudents.[71]InIndonesiathisinvolvesabout35,000students.[58] UnlikeotherEuropeannations,theDutchchosenottofollowapolicyoflanguageexpansionamongsttheindigenouspeoplesoftheircolonies.[72]Inthelastquarterofthe19thcentury,however,alocalelitegainedproficiencyinDutchsoastomeettheneedsofexpandingbureaucracyandbusiness.[73]Nevertheless,theDutchgovernmentremainedreluctanttoteachDutchonalargescaleforfearofdestabilisingthecolony.Dutch,thelanguageofpower,wassupposedtoremaininthehandsoftheleadingelite.[73] Afterindependence,DutchwasdroppedasanofficiallanguageandreplacedbyMalay.YettheIndonesianlanguageinheritedmanywordsfromDutch:wordsforeverydaylifeaswellasscientificandtechnologicalterms.[74]Onescholararguesthat20%ofIndonesianwordscanbetracedbacktoDutchwords,[75]manyofwhicharetransliteratedtoreflectphoneticpronunciatione.g.kantoor"office"inIndonesianiskantor,whilebus"bus"becomesbis.Inaddition,manyIndonesianwordsarecalquesofDutch;forexample,rumahsakit"hospital"iscalquedontheDutchziekenhuis(literally"sickhouse"),kebunbinatang"zoo"ondierentuin(literally"animalgarden"),undang-undangdasar"constitution"fromgrondwet(literally"groundlaw").TheseaccountforsomeofthedifferencesinvocabularybetweenIndonesianandMalay. Australasia[edit] AfterthedeclarationofindependenceofIndonesia,WesternNewGuinea,the"wildeast"oftheDutchEastIndies,remainedaDutchcolonyuntil1962,knownasNetherlandsNewGuinea.[76]DespiteprolongedDutchpresence,theDutchlanguageisnotspokenbymanyPapuans,thecolonyhavingbeencededtoIndonesiain1963. Dutch-speakingimmigrantcommunitiescanalsobefoundinAustraliaandNewZealand.The2011Australiancensusshowed37,248peoplespeakingDutchathome.[77]Atthe2006NewZealandcensus,26,982people,or0.70percentofthetotalpopulation,reportedtospeakDutchtosufficientfluencythattheycouldholdaneverydayconversation.[78] Americas[edit] ThelocationofSurinameinSouthAmerica TheDutchCaribbeanatbothendsoftheLesserAntilles,liningtheCaribbeanSea IncontrasttothecoloniesintheEastIndies,fromthesecondhalfofthe19thcenturyonwards,theNetherlandsenvisagedtheexpansionofDutchinitscoloniesintheWestIndies.Until1863,whenslaverywasabolishedintheWestIndies,slaveswereforbiddentospeakDutch,withtheeffectthatlocalcreolessuchasPapiamentoandSrananTongowhichwerebasednotonDutchbutratherotherEuropeanlanguages,becamecommonintheDutchWestIndies.However,asmostofthepeopleintheColonyofSurinam(nowSuriname)workedonDutchplantations,thisreinforcedtheuseofDutchasameansfordirectcommunication.[73][79] InSurinametoday,Dutchisthesoleofficiallanguage,[80]andover60 percentofthepopulationspeaksitasamothertongue.[6]DutchistheobligatorymediumofinstructioninschoolsinSuriname,evenfornon-nativespeakers.[81]Afurthertwenty-fourpercentofthepopulationspeaksDutchasasecondlanguage.[82]SurinamegaineditsindependencefromtheNetherlandsin1975andhasbeenanassociatememberoftheDutchLanguageUnionsince2004.[83]ThelinguafrancaofSuriname,however,isSrananTongo,[84]spokennativelybyaboutafifthofthepopulation.[59][n12] InAruba,Bonaire,CuraçaoandSintMaarten,allpartsoftheKingdomoftheNetherlands,Dutchistheofficiallanguagebutspokenasafirstlanguagebyonly7%to8%ofthepopulation,[85]althoughmostnative-bornpeopleontheislandscanspeakthelanguagesincetheeducationsystemisinDutchatsomeoralllevels. IntheUnitedStates,anowextinctdialectofDutch,JerseyDutch,spokenbydescendantsof17th-centuryDutchsettlersinBergenandPassaiccounties,wasstillspokenaslateas1921.[86]OtherDutch-basedcreolelanguagesoncespokenintheAmericasincludeMohawkDutch(inAlbany,NewYork),Berbice(inGuyana),Skepi(inEssequibo,Guyana)andNegerhollands(intheUnitedStatesVirginIslands).PennsylvaniaDutchisnotamemberofthesetofDutchdialectsandislessmisleadinglycalledPennsylvaniaGerman.[87] MartinVanBuren,theeighthPresidentoftheUnitedStates,spokeDutchnativelyandistheonlyU.S.presidentwhosefirstlanguagewasnotEnglish.DutchprevailedformanygenerationsasthedominantlanguageinpartsofNewYorkalongtheHudsonRiver.AnotherfamousAmericanborninthisregionwhospokeDutchasafirstlanguagewasSojournerTruth. Accordingtothe2000UnitedStatescensus,150,396peoplespokeDutchathome,[88]whileaccordingtothe2006Canadiancensus,thisnumberreaches160,000Dutchspeakers.[89]Atanacademiclevel,20universitiesofferDutchstudiesintheUnitedStates.[64][65]InCanada,Dutchisthefourthmostspokenlanguagebyfarmers,afterEnglish,FrenchandGerman,[90]andthefifthmostspokennon-officiallanguageoverall(by0.6%ofCanadians).[91] Africa[edit] Mainarticle:Afrikaans ThedistributionofAfrikaansacrossSouthAfrica:proportionofthepopulationspeakingAfrikaansathome  0–20%  20–40%  40–60%  60–80%  80–100% ThelargestlegacyoftheDutchlanguageliesinSouthAfrica,whichattractedlargenumbersofDutch,FlemishandothernorthwestEuropeanfarmer(inDutch,boer)settlers,allofwhomwerequicklyassimilated.[92]ThelongisolationfromtherestoftheDutch-speakingworldmadetheDutchasspokeninSouthernAfricaevolveintowhatisnowAfrikaans.[93]In1876,thefirstAfrikaansnewspapercalledDieAfrikaansePatriotwaspublishedintheCapeColony.[94] EuropeanDutchremainedtheliterarylanguage[93]untilthestartofthe1920s,whenunderpressureofAfrikanernationalismthelocal"African"Dutchwaspreferredoverthewritten,European-basedstandard.[92]In1925,section137ofthe1909constitutionoftheUnionofSouthAfricawasamendedbyAct8of1925,stating"thewordDutchinarticle137 ...isherebydeclaredtoincludeAfrikaans".[95][96]Theconstitutionof1983onlylistedEnglishandAfrikaansasofficiallanguages.Itisestimatedthatbetween90%to95%ofAfrikaansvocabularyisultimatelyofDutchorigin.[97][98] Bothlanguagesarestilllargelymutuallyintelligible,althoughthisrelationcaninsomefields(suchaslexicon,spellingandgrammar)beasymmetric,asitiseasierforDutchspeakerstounderstandwrittenAfrikaansthanitisforAfrikaansspeakerstounderstandwrittenDutch.[99]AfrikaansisgrammaticallyfarlesscomplexthanDutch,andvocabularyitemsaregenerallyalteredinaclearlypatternedmanner,e.g.vogelbecomesvoël("bird")andregenbecomesreën("rain").[100]InSouthAfrica,thenumberofstudentsfollowingDutchatuniversityisdifficulttoestimate,sincetheacademicstudyofAfrikaansinevitablyincludesthestudyofDutch.[58]Elsewhereintheworld,thenumberofpeoplelearningDutchisrelativelysmall. Seealso:DifferencesbetweenAfrikaansandDutch AfrikaansisthethirdlargestlanguageofSouthAfricaintermsofnativespeakers(~13.5%),[101]ofwhom53%areColouredsand42.4%Whites.[102]In1996,40 percentofSouthAfricansreportedtoknowAfrikaansatleastataverybasiclevelofcommunication.[103]ItisthelinguafrancainNamibia,[92][104][105]whereitisspokennativelyin11 percentofhouseholds.[106]Intotal,AfrikaansisthefirstlanguageinSouthAfricaaloneofabout7.1 millionpeople[101]andisestimatedtobeasecondlanguageforatleast10 millionpeopleworldwide,[107]comparedtoover23 million[6]and5 millionrespectively,forDutch.[2] TheDutchcolonialpresenceelsewhereinAfrica,notablyDutchGoldCoast,wastooephemeralnottobewipedoutbyprevailingcolonizingEuropeansuccessors.BelgiancolonialpresenceinCongoandRwanda-Urundi(BurundiandRwanda,heldunderLeagueofNationsmandateandlateraUNtrustterritory)leftlittleDutch(Flemish)legacy,asFrenchwasthemaincoloniallanguage.[108] Phonology[edit] Mainarticle:Dutchphonology SpokenDutch,withaNetherlandsaccent SpokenDutch,withanEastFlemishaccent Forfurtherdetailsondifferentrealisationsofphonemes,dialectaldifferencesandexamplewords,seethefullarticleatDutchphonology. Consonants[edit] UnlikeotherGermaniclanguages,Dutchhasnophonologicalaspirationofconsonants.[109]LikemostotherGermaniclanguages,theDutchconsonantsystemdidnotundergotheHighGermanconsonantshiftandhasasyllablestructurethatallowsfairly-complexconsonantclusters.DutchalsoretainsfulluseofthevelarfricativesofProto-GermanicthatwerelostormodifiedinmanyotherGermaniclanguages.Dutchhasfinal-obstruentdevoicing.Attheendofaword,voicingdistinctionisneutralisedandallobstruentsarepronouncedvoiceless.Forexample,Dutchgoede(̇‘good’)is/ˈɣudə/buttherelatedformgoedis/ɣut/.Dutchsharesthisfinal-obstruentdevoicingwithGerman(theDutchnoungoudispronounced[ɣɑut],theadjectivegoudenispronounced[ɣɑudə(n)],liketheGermannounGold,pronounced[ɡɔlt],adjectivegolden,pronounced[ɡɔldn]vsEnglishgoldandgolden,bothpronouncedwith[d].) Voicingofpre-vocalicinitialvoicelessalveolarfricativesoccursalthoughlessinDutchthaninGerman(Dutchzeven,Germansiebenwith[z]versusEnglishsevenandLowGermansevenwith[s]),andalsotheshift/θ/→/d/.DutchsharesonlywithLowGermanthedevelopmentof/xs/→/ss/(Dutchvossen,ossenandLowGermanVösse,OssenversusGermanFüchse,OchsenandEnglishfoxes,oxen),andalsothedevelopmentof/ft/→/xt/thoughitisfarmorecommoninDutch(DutchzachtandLowGermansachtversusGermansanftandEnglishsoft,butDutchkrachtversusGermanKraftandEnglishcraft).   Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar/Uvular Glottal Nasal m n ŋ Plosive pb td k[ɡ] (ʔ) Fricative fv sz [ʃ][ʒ] xɣ ɦ Approximant ʋ l j Rhotic r Notes: [ʔ]isnotaseparatephonemeinDutch,butisinsertedbeforevowel-initialsyllableswithinwordsafter/a/and/ə/andoftenalsoatthebeginningofaword. Therealizationof/r/phonemevariesconsiderablyfromdialecttodialectandevenbetweenspeakersinthesamedialectarea.Commonrealisationsareanalveolartrill[r],alveolartap[ɾ],uvulartrill[ʀ],voiceduvularfricative[ʁ],andalveolarapproximant[ɹ]. Therealizationof/ʋ/alsovariessomewhatbyareaandspeaker.Themainrealisationisalabiodentalapproximant[ʋ],butsomespeakers,particularlyinthesouth,useabilabialapproximant[β̞]oralabiovelarapproximant[w]. Thelateral/l/isslightlyvelarizedpostvocalicallyinmostdialects,particularlyinthenorth.[110] /x/and/ɣ/maybetruevelars[x]and[ɣ],uvular[χ]and[ʁ]orpalatal[ç]and[ʝ].Themorepalatalrealisationsarecommoninsouthernareas,anduvularsarecommoninthenorth. Somenortherndialectshaveatendencytodevoiceallfricatives,regardlessofenvironment,whichisparticularlycommonwith/ɣ/butcanaffectothersaswell. /ʃ/and/ʒ/arenotnativephonemesofDutchandusuallyoccurinborrowedwords,likeshowandbagage(‘baggage’),butmayoccurif/s/and/z/arepalatalised. /ɡ/isnotanativephonemeofDutchandoccursonlyinborrowedwords,likegarçon. Vowels[edit] LikeEnglish,Dutchdidnotdevelopi-mutationasamorphologicalmarkerandshareswithmostotherGermaniclanguagesthelengtheningofshortvowelsinstressedopensyllables,whichhasledtocontrastivevowellengthbeingusedasamorphologicalmarker.Dutchhasanextensivevowelinventory.Vowelscanbegroupedasbackrounded,frontunroundedandfrontrounded.Theyarealsotraditionallydistinguishedbylengthortenseness. VowellengthisnotalwaysconsideredadistinctivefeatureinDutchphonologybecauseitnormallyoccurswithchangesinvowelquality.Onefeatureortheothermaybeconsideredredundant,andsomephonemicanalysesprefertotreatitasanoppositionoftenseness.However,evenifitisnotconsideredpartofthephonemicopposition,thelong/tensevowelsarestillrealisedasphoneticallylongerthantheirshortcounterparts.Thechangesinvowelqualityarealsonotalwaysthesameinalldialects,someofwhichmaybelittledifferenceatall,withlengthremainingtheprimarydistinguishingfeature.Althoughallolderwordspairvowellengthwithachangeinvowelquality,newloanwordshavereintroducedphonemicoppositionsoflength.Comparezonne(n)[ˈzɔnə]("suns")versuszone[ˈzɔːnə]("zone")versuszonen[ˈzoːnə(n)]("sons"),orkroes[krus]("mug")versuscruise[kruːs]("cruise"). Short/laxvowels Frontunr. Frontrnd. Central Back Close ɪ ʏ Mid ɛ ə ɔ Open ɑ   Long/tensevowels Frontunr. Frontrnd. Back Close i~iː y~yː u~uː Close-mid eː øː oː Open-mid (ɛː) (œː) (ɔː) Open aː Notes: Thedistinctionbetween/iyu/and/iːyːuː/isonlyslightandmaybeconsideredallophonicformostpurposes.However,somerecentloanwordshaveintroduceddistinctively-long/iːyːuː/,makingthelengthdistinctionmarginallyphonemic. Thelongclose-midvowels/eːøːoː/arerealisedasslightlyclosingdiphthongs[eɪøʏoʊ]inmanynortherndialects. Thelongopen-midvowels/ɛːœːɔː/occuronlyinahandfulofloanwords,mostlyfromFrench.IncertainBelgianDutchvarieties,theymayalsooccurasrealisationsof/ɛiœyau/.[110] Thelongcloseandclose-midvowelsareoftenpronouncedmoreclosedorascenteringdiphthongsbeforean/r/inthesyllablecoda,whichmayoccurbeforecoda/l/aswell. Diphthongs[edit] Seealso:IJ(digraph) UniquetothedevelopmentofDutchisthecollapseofolderol/ul/al+dentalintool+dental,followedbyvocalisationofpre-consonantal/l/andafterashortvowel.Thatcreatedthediphthong/ɑu/:Dutchgoud,zoutandboutcorrespondswithLowGermanGold,Solt,Bolt;GermanGold,Salz,BaltandEnglishgold,salt,bolt.Itisthemostcommondiphthong,alongwith/ɛiœy/.AllthreearetheonlyonescommonlyconsidereduniquephonemesinDutch.ThetendencyfornativeEnglishspeakersistopronounceDutchnameswith/ɛi/(writtenasijorei)as/aɪ/,(liketheEnglish"longi"),whichdoesnotnormallyleadtoconfusionfornativelistenerssinceinanumberofdialects(suchasinAmsterdam[111]),thesamepronunciationisheard. Incontrast,/ɑi/and/ɔi/arerareinDutch.The"long/tense"diphthongsareindeedrealisedasproperdiphthongsbutaregenerallyanalysedphonemicallyasalong/tensevowel,followedbyaglide/j/or/ʋ/.Alldiphthongsendinaclosevowel(/iyu/)andaregroupedherebytheirfirstelement. Short/laxdiphthongs Frontunr. Frontrnd. Back Close Mid ɛi œy (ɔi) Open ɑu(ɑi)   Long/tensediphthongs Frontunr. Frontrnd. Back Close iu yu ui Mid eːu oːi Open aːi Phonotactics[edit] ThesyllablestructureofDutchis(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C).Manywords,asinEnglish,beginwiththreeconsonants:straat/straːt/(street).Therearewordsthatendinfourconsonants:herfst/ɦɛrfst/(autumn),ergst/ɛrxst/(worst),interessantst/ɪn.tə.rɛ.sɑntst/(mostinteresting),sterkst/stɛrkst/(strongest),thelastthreeofwhicharesuperlativeadjectives. Thehighestnumberofconsonantsinasingleclusterisfoundinthewordslechtstschrijvend/ˈslɛxtstˌsxrɛi̯vənt/(writingworst),withsevenconsonantphonemes.angstschreeuw/ˈɑŋstsxreːu̯/ (help·info)(screaminfear)hassixinarow. PolderDutch[edit] AnotablechangeinpronunciationhasbeenoccurringinyoungergenerationsintheDutchprovincesofUtrecht,NorthandSouthHolland,whichhasbeendubbed"PolderDutch"byJanStroop.[112]Suchspeakerspronounce⟨ij/ei⟩,⟨ou/au⟩and⟨ui⟩,whichusedtobepronouncedrespectivelyas/ɛi/,/ɔu/,and/œy/,asincreasinglyloweredto[ai],[au],and[ay]respectively.Inaddition,thesamespeakerspronounce/eː/,/oː/,and/øː/asthediphthongs[ei],[ou],and[øy][113]respectively,makingthechangeanexampleofachainshift. Thechangeisinterestingfromasociolinguisticpointofviewbecauseithasapparentlyhappenedrelativelyrecently,inthe1970sandwaspioneeredbyolderwell-educatedwomenfromtheuppermiddleclasses.[114]TheloweringofthediphthongshaslongbeencurrentinmanyDutchdialectsandiscomparabletotheEnglishGreatVowelShiftandthediphthongisationoflonghighvowelsinModernHighGerman,whichhadcenturiesearlierreachedthestatenowfoundinPolderDutch.Strooptheorizesthattheloweringofopen-midtoopendiphthongsisaphonetically"natural"andinevitabledevelopmentandthatDutch,afterithaddiphthongisedthelonghighvowelslikeGermanandEnglish,"should"haveloweredthediphthongslikeGermanandEnglishaswell. Instead,hearguesthatthedevelopmenthasbeenartificiallyfrozeninan"intermediate"statebythestandardisationofDutchpronunciationinthe16thcenturyinwhichlowereddiphthongsfoundinruraldialectswereperceivedasuglybytheeducatedclassesandwereaccordinglydeclaredsubstandard.Now,however,hethinksthatthenewly-affluentandindependentwomencanaffordtoletthatnaturaldevelopmenttakeplaceintheirspeech.StroopcomparestheroleofPolderDutchwiththeurbanvarietyofBritishEnglishpronunciationcalledEstuaryEnglish. AmongBelgianandSurinameseDutch-speakersandspeakersfromotherregionsintheNetherlands,thisvowelshiftisnottakingplace. Grammar[edit] Mainarticle:Dutchgrammar Seealso:DT-Manie DutchisgrammaticallysimilartoGerman,suchasinsyntaxandverbmorphology(forverbmorphologyinEnglishverbs,DutchandGerman,seeGermanicweakverbandGermanicstrongverb).Grammaticalcaseshavelargelybecomelimitedtopronounsandmanysetphrases.Inflectedformsofthearticlesareoftengracesurnamesandtoponyms. StandardDutchusesthreegendersacrossnaturalandgrammaticalgendersbutformostnon-Belgianspeakers,masculineandfemininehavemergedtoformthecommongender(withdefor"the").Theneuter(whichuseshet)remainsdistinct.ThisissimilartothoseofmostContinentalScandinaviantongues.LesssothanEnglish,inflectionalgrammar(suchasinadjectivalandnounendings)hassimplified. Verbsandtenses[edit] Whengroupedaccordingtotheirconjugationalclass,Dutchhasfourmainverbtypes:weakverbs,strongverbs,irregularverbsandmixedverbs. Weakverbsaremostnumerous,constitutingabout60%ofallverbs.Inthese,thepasttenseandpastparticipleareformedwithadentalsuffix: Weakverbswithpastin-de Weakverbswithpastin-te Strongverbsarethesecondmostnumerousverbgroup.Thisgroupischaracterisedbyavowelalternationofthesteminthepasttenseandperfectparticiple.Dutchdistinguishesbetween7classes,comprisingalmostallstrongverbs,withsomeinternalvariants.Dutchhasmany'halfstrongverbs':thesehaveaweakpasttenseandastrongparticipleorastrongpasttenseandaweakparticiple.Thefollowingtableshowsthevowelalternationsinmoredetail.Italsoshowsthenumberofroots(bareverbs)thatbelongtoeachclass,variantswithaprefixareexcluded. Verbclass Verb Present Past Participle Numberofroots 1 kijken (towatch) ɛi kijk e: keek e: gekeken 58 2a bieden (tooffer) i bied o: bood o: geboden 17 2b stuiven (togush) œy stuif o: stoof o: gestoven 23 3a klimmen (toclimb) ɪ klim ɔ klom ɔ geklommen 25 3b zenden (tosend) ɛ zend ɔ zond ɔ gezonden 18 3+7 sterven (todie) ɛ sterf i stierf ɔ gestorven 6 4 breken (tobreak) e: breek ɑ~a: brak~braken o: gebroken 7 4irregular wegen (toweigh) e: weeg o: woog o: gewogen 3 5 geven (togive) e: geef ɑ~a: gaf~gaven e: gegeven 10 5irregular zitten (tosit) ɪ zit ɑ~a: zat~zaten e: gezeten 3 6 dragen (tocarry) a: draag u droeg a: gedragen 4 7 roepen (tocall) X roep i riep X geroepen 8 7irregular vangen (tocatch) X vang ɪ ving X gevangen 3 Halfstrongpast vragen (toask) vraag vroeg gevraagd 3 Halfstrongperfect bakken (tobake) bak bakte gebakken 19 Other scheppen (tocreate) schep schiep geschapen 5 Gendersandcases[edit] AsinEnglish,thecasesystemofDutchandthesubjunctivehavelargelyfallenoutofuse,andthesystemhasgeneralisedthedativeovertheaccusativecaseforcertainpronouns(NL:me,je;EN:me,you;LI:mi,divs.DE:mich/mir,dich/dir).WhilestandardDutchhasthreegrammaticalgenders,thishasfewconsequencesandthemasculineandfemininegenderareusuallymergedintoacommongenderintheNetherlandsbutnotinBelgium(EN:none;NL/LI:commonandneuter;inBelgiummasculine,feminineandneuterisinuse). ModernDutchhasmostlylostitscasesystem.[115]However,certainidiomsandexpressionscontinuetoincludenowarchaiccasedeclensions.Thearticlehasjusttwoforms,deandhet,morecomplexthanEnglish,whichhasonlythe.Theuseoftheolderinflectedformdeninthedativeandaccusative,aswellasuseofderinthedative,isrestrictedtonumeroussetphrases,surnamesandtoponyms. Masculinesingular Femininesingular Neutersingular Plural(anygender) Nominative de de het de Genitive vande vande vanhet vande Genitive des der des der InmodernDutch,thegenitivearticlesdesandderinthebottomlinearecommonlyusedinidioms.Otherusageistypicallyconsideredarchaic,poeticorstylistic.Onemustknowwhetheranounismasculineorfemininetousethemcorrectly.Inmostcircumstances,theprepositionvan,themiddleline,isinsteadused,followedbythenormalarticledeorhet,andinthatcaseitmakesnodifferencewhetherawordismasculineorfeminine..Fortheidiomaticuseofthearticlesinthegenitive,seeforexample: Masculinesingular:"desduivels"(lit:"ofthedevil")(commonproverbialmeaning:Seethingwithrage) Femininesingular:hetwoordenboekderFriesetaal("thedictionaryoftheFrisianlanguage") Neutersingular:devrouwdeshuizes("theladyofthehouse") Plural:devoortgangderwerken("theprogressof(public)works") Incontemporaryusage,thegenitivecasestilloccursalittlemoreoftenwithpluralsthanwithsingulars,asthepluralarticleisderforallgendersandnospecialnouninflectionmustbetakenaccountof.Deriscommonlyusedinordertoavoidreduplicationofvan,e.g.hetmerendeeldergedichtenvandeauteurinsteadofhetmerendeelvandegedichtenvandeauteur("thebulkoftheauthor'spoems"). Thereisalsoagenitiveformforthepronoundie/dat("that[one],those[ones]"),namelydiensformasculineandneutersingulars(occurrencesofdierforfemininesingularandallpluralsareextremelyrare).Althoughusuallyavoidedincommonspeech,thisformcanbeusedinsteadofpossessivepronounstoavoidconfusion.Compare: Hijverteldeoverzijnzoonenzijnvrouw.–Hetoldabouthissonandhis(own)wife. Hijverteldeoverzijnzoonendiensvrouw.–Hetoldabouthissonandthelatter'swife. Analogically,therelativeandinterrogativepronounwie("who")hasthegenitiveformswiensandwier(correspondingtoEnglishwhose,butlessfrequentinuse). Dutchalsohasarangeoffixedexpressionsthatmakeuseofthegenitivearticles,whichcanbeabbreviatedusingapostrophes.Commonexamplesinclude"'sochtends"(with'sasabbreviationofdes;"inthemorning")anddesnoods(lit:"oftheneed",translated:"ifnecessary"). TheDutchwrittengrammarhassimplifiedoverthepast100years:casesarenowmainlyusedforthepronouns,suchasik(I),mij,me(me),mijn(my),wie(who),wiens(whose:masculineorneutersingular),wier(whose:femininesingular;masculine,feminineorneuterplural).Nounsandadjectivesarenotcaseinflected(exceptforthegenitiveofpropernouns(names):-s,-'sor-').Inthespokenlanguagecasesandcaseinflectionshadalreadygraduallydisappearedfromamuchearlierdateon(probablythe15thcentury)asinmanycontinentalWestGermanicdialects. Inflectionofadjectivesismorecomplicated.Theadjectivereceivesnoendingwithindefiniteneuternounsinsingular(aswitheen/ən/'a/an'),and-einallothercases.(ThiswasalsothecaseinMiddleEnglish,asin"agoodeman".)Fietsbelongstothemasculine/femininecategory,whilewaterandhuisareneuter. Masculinesingularorfemininesingular Neutersingular Plural(anygender) Definite(withdefinitearticleorpronoun) demooiefiets("thebeautifulbicycle")onzemooiefiets("ourbeautifulbicycle")dezemooiefiets("thisbeautifulbicycle") hetmooiehuis("thebeautifulhouse")onsmooiehuis("ourbeautifulhouse")ditmooiehuis("thisbeautifulhouse") demooiefietsen("thebeautifulbicycles")demooiehuizen("thebeautifulhouses")onzemooiefietsen("ourbeautifulbicycles")dezemooiehuizen("thesebeautifulhouses") Indefinite(withindefinitearticleornoarticleandnopronoun) eenmooiefiets("abeautifulbicycle")koudesoep("coldsoup") eenmooihuis("abeautifulhouse")koudwater("coldwater") mooiefietsen("beautifulbicycles")mooiehuizen("beautifulhouses") Anadjectivehasnoeifitisinthepredicative:Desoepiskoud. Morecomplexinflectionisstillfoundincertainlexicalizedexpressionslikedeheerdeshuizes(literally,"themanofthehouse"),etc.Theseareusuallyremnantsofcases(inthisinstance,thegenitivecasewhichisstillusedinGerman,cf.DerHerrdesHauses)andotherinflectionsnolongeringeneralusetoday.Insuchlexicalizedexpressionsremnantsofstrongandweaknounscanbefoundtoo,e.g.inhetjaardesHeren(AnnoDomini),where-enisactuallythegenitiveendingoftheweaknoun.Similarlyinsomeplacenames:‌'s-Gravenbrakel,‌'s-Hertogenbosch,etc.(withweakgenitivesofgraaf“count”,hertog“duke”).Alsointhiscase,Germanretainsthisfeature. Wordorder[edit] DutchsharesmuchofitswordorderwithGerman.Dutchexhibitssubject–object–verbwordorder,butinmainclausestheconjugatedverbismovedintothesecondpositioninwhatisknownasverbsecondorV2wordorder.ThismakesDutchwordorderalmostidenticaltothatofGerman,butoftendifferentfromEnglish,whichhassubject–verb–objectwordorderandhassincelosttheV2wordorderthatexistedinOldEnglish.[116] AnexamplesentenceusedinsomeDutchlanguagecoursesandtextbooksis"Ikkanmijnpennietvindenomdathetveeltedonkeris",whichtranslatesintoEnglishwordforwordas"Icanmypennotfindbecauseitfartoodarkis",butinstandardEnglishwordorderwouldbewritten"Icannotfindmypenbecauseitisfartoodark".Ifthesentenceissplitintoamainandsubclauseandtheverbshighlighted,thelogicbehindthewordordercanbeseen. Mainclause:"Ikkanmijnpennietvinden" Verbsareplacedinthefinalposition,buttheconjugatedverb,inthiscase"kan"(can),ismadethesecondelementoftheclause. Subclause:"omdathetveeltedonkeris" Theverborverbsalwaysgointhefinalposition. Inaninterrogativemainclausetheusualwordorderis:conjugatedverbfollowedbysubject;otherverbsinfinalposition: "Kunjijjepennietvinden?"(literally"Canyouyourpennotfind?")"Can'tyoufindyourpen?" IntheDutchequivalentofawh-questionthewordorderis:interrogativepronoun(orexpression)+conjugatedverb+subject;otherverbsinfinalposition: "Waaromkunjijjepennietvinden?"("Whycanyouyourpennotfind?")"Whycan'tyoufindyourpen?" Inatagquestionthewordorderisthesameasinadeclarativeclause: "Jijkuntjepennietvinden?"("Youcanyourpennotfind?")"Youcan'tfindyourpen?" Asubordinateclausedoesnotchangeitswordorder: "Kunjijjepennietvindenomdathetveeltedonkeris?"("Canyouyourpennotfindbecauseitfartoodarkis?")"Canyounotfindyourpenbecauseit'sfartoodark?" Diminutives[edit] Seealso:Listofdiminutivesbylanguage§ Dutch InDutch,thediminutiveisusedextensively.ThenuancesofmeaningexpressedbythediminutiveareadistinctiveaspectofDutch,andcanbedifficultfornon-nativespeakerstomaster.Itisveryproductive[117]: 61 andformedbyaddingoneofthesuffixestothenouninquestion,dependingonthelatter'sphonologicalending: -jeforendingin-b,-c,-d,-t,-f,-g,-ch,-k,-p,-v,-x,-zor-s:neef→neefje(malecousin,nephew) -pjeforendingin-m:boom(tree)→boompje -kjeforendingin-ingiftheprecedingsyllablecarriesthestress:koning(king)→koninkje(the'ng'-soundtransformsinto'nk');butring→ringetje(ring),andvondeling→vondelingetje(foundling)withoutthisstresspattern -tjeforendingin-h,-j,-l,-n,-r,-w,oravowelotherthan-y:zoen→zoentje(kiss).Asingleopenvowelisdoubledwhenadding"-tje"wouldchangethepronunciation:auto→autootje(car). -′tjeforendingin-yandforabbreviations:baby→baby'tje,cd→cd'tje,A4→A4'tje -etjeforendingin-b,-l,-n,-ngor-rprecededbya"short"(lax)vowel:bal→balletje(ball).Finalconsonantisdoubled(exceptfor-ng)topreservethevowel'sshortness. Thediminutivesuffixes-ke(fromwhich-tjehasderivedbypalatalization),-eke,-ske,-ie(onlyforwordsending-ch,-k,-p,or-s),-kie(insteadof-kje),and-pie(insteadof-pje)areusedinsoutherndialects,andtheformsendingon-ieaswellinnorthernurbandialects.Someoftheseformpartofexpressionsthatbecamestandardlanguage,likeeenmakkie,fromgemak=ease).Thenounjoch(youngboy)has,exceptionally,onlythediminutiveformjochie,alsoinstandardDutch.Theform-keisalsofoundinmanywomen'sgivennames:Janneke,Marieke,Marijke,Mieke,Meikeetc. InDutch,thediminutiveisnotrestrictedtonouns,butcanbeappliedtonumerals(metz'ntweetjes,"thetwoofus"),pronouns(onderonsje,"tête-à-tête"),verbalparticles(moetje,"shotgunmarriage"),andevenprepositions(toetje,"dessert").[117]: 64–65 Adjectivesandadverbscommonlytakediminutiveforms;theformertakeadiminutiveendingandthusfunctionasnouns,whilethelatterremainadverbsandalwayshavethediminutivewiththe-sappended,e.g.adjective:groen("green")→noun:groentje("rookie");adverb:even("awhile")→adverb:eventjes("alittlewhile"). Somenounshavetwodifferentdiminutives,eachwithadifferentmeaning:bloem(flower)→bloempje(lit."smallflower"),butbloemetje(lit.also"smallflower",meaningbouquet).Afewnounsexistsolelyinadiminutiveform,e.g.zeepaardje(seahorse),whilemany,e.g.meisje(girl),originallyadiminutiveofmeid(maid),haveacquiredameaningindependentoftheirnon-diminutiveforms.Adiminutivecansometimesbeaddedtoanuncountablenountorefertoasingleportion:ijs(ice,icecream)→ijsje(icecreamtreat,coneoficecream),bier(beer)→biertje.Somediminutiveformsonlyexistintheplural,e.g.kleertjes(clothing). Whenusedtorefertotime,theDutchdiminutiveformcanindicatewhetherthepersoninquestionfounditpleasantornot:eenuurtjekletsen(chattingfora"little"hour.)Thediminutivecan,however,alsobeusedpejoratively:Hijwasweereenshet"mannetje".(Heactedasifhewasthe"little"man.) Alldiminutives(evenlexicalisedoneslike"meisje"(girl))haveneutergenderandtakeneuterconcords:"ditkleinemeisje",not"dezekleinemeisje". Pronounsanddeterminers[edit] Therearetwoseriesofpersonalpronouns,subjectandobjectspronouns.Theformsontheright-handsideswithineachcolumnaretheunemphaticforms;thosenotnormallywrittenaregiveninbrackets.Onlyonsandudonothaveanunemphaticform.ThedistinctionbetweenemphaticandunemphaticpronounsisveryimportantinDutch.[117]: 67 EmphaticpronounsinEnglishusethereflexivepronounform,butareusedtoemphasizethesubject,nottoindicateadirectorindirectobject.Forexample,"Igave(to)myselfthemoney"isreflexivebut"Imyselfgavethemoney(tosomeoneelse)"isemphatic. person subject object 1stpersonsingular ik–('k) mij–me 2ndpersonsingular,informal jij–je jou–je 2ndpersonsingular,formal u u 3rdpersonsingular,masculine hij–(ie) hem–('m) 3rdpersonsingular,feminine zij–ze haar–('r,d'r) 3rdpersonsingular,neuter het–('t) het–('t) 1stpersonplural wij–we ons 2ndpersonplural,informal jullie–je jullie–je 2ndpersonplural,formal u u 3rdpersonplural,foraperson zij–ze hun,hen–ze 3rdpersonplural,foranobject zij–ze die–ze LikeEnglish,Dutchhasgeneralisedthedativeovertheaccusativecaseforallpronouns,e.g.NL'me','je',EN'me','you',vs.DE'mich'/'mir''dich'/'dir'.Thereisoneexception:thestandardlanguageprescribesthatinthethirdpersonplural,henistobeusedforthedirectobject,andhunfortheindirectobject.Thisdistinctionwasartificiallyintroducedinthe17thcenturybygrammarians,andislargelyignoredinspokenlanguageandnotwellunderstoodbyDutchspeakers.Consequently,thethirdpersonpluralformshunandhenareinterchangeableinnormalusage,withhunbeingmorecommon.Thesharedunstressedformzeisalsooftenusedasbothdirectandindirectobjectsandisausefulavoidancestrategywhenpeopleareunsurewhichformtouse.[118] DutchsharesalsowithEnglishthepresenceofh-pronouns,e.g.NLhij,hem,haar,hen,hunandENhe,him,hervs.DEer,ihn,ihr,ihnen. Compounds[edit] The27-lettercompoundhemelwaterinfiltratiegebied(rainwaterinfiltrationarea)onatrafficsigninZwolle,Netherlands LikemostGermaniclanguages,Dutchformsnouncompounds,wherethefirstnounmodifiesthecategorygivenbythesecond(hondenhok=doghouse).UnlikeEnglish,wherenewercompoundsorcombinationsoflongernounsareoftenwritteninopenformwithseparatingspaces,Dutch(liketheotherGermaniclanguages)eitherusestheclosedformwithoutspaces(boomhut=treehouse)orinsertsahyphen(VVD-coryfee=outstandingmemberoftheVVD,apoliticalparty).LikeGerman,Dutchallowsarbitrarilylongcompounds,butthelongertheyget,thelessfrequenttheytendtobe. ThelongestseriousentryintheVanDaledictionaryiswapenstilstandsonderhandeling (help·info)(ceasefirenegotiation).Leafingthroughthearticlesofassociation(Statuten)onemaycomeacrossa30-lettervertegenwoordigingsbevoegdheid (help·info)(authorisationofrepresentation).Anevenlongerwordcroppingupinofficialdocumentsisziektekostenverzekeringsmaatschappij(healthinsurancecompany)thoughtheshorterzorgverzekeraar(healthinsurer)ismorecommon. Notwithstandingofficialspellingrules,someDutch-speakingpeople,likesomeScandinaviansandGermanspeakers,nowadaystendtowritethepartsofacompoundseparately,apracticesometimesdubbeddeEngelseziekte(theEnglishdisease).[119] Vocabulary[edit] DutchvocabularyispredominantlyGermanicinorigin,withloanwordsaccountingfor20%.[120]ThemainforeigninfluenceonDutchvocabularysincethe12thcenturyandculminatingintheFrenchperiodhasbeenFrenchand(northern)Oïllanguages,accountingforanestimated6.8%ofallwords,ormorethanathirdofallloanwords.Latin,whichwasspokeninthesouthernLowCountriesforcenturiesandthenplayedamajorroleasthelanguageofscienceandreligion,followswith6.1%.HighGermanandLowGermanwereinfluentialuntilthemid-19thcenturyandaccountfor2.7%,buttheyaremostlyunrecognizablesincemanyhavebeen"Dutchified":GermanFremdling→Dutchvreemdeling.DutchhasborrowedwordsfromEnglishsincethemid-19thcentury,asaconsequenceoftheincreasingpowerandinfluenceofBritainandtheUnitedStates.Englishloanwordsareabout1.5%,butcontinuetoincrease.[121]ManyEnglishloanwordsbecomelessvisibleovertimeastheyareeithergraduallyreplacedbycalques(skyscraperbecameDutchwolkenkrabber)orneologisms(bucketlistbecameloodjeslijst).Conversely,DutchcontributedmanyloanwordstoEnglish,accountingfor1.3%ofitslexicon.[122] ThemainDutchdictionaryistheVanDalegrootwoordenboekderNederlandsetaal,whichcontainssome268,826headwords.[123]Inthefieldoflinguistics,the45,000-pageWoordenboekderNederlandscheTaalisalsowidelyused.Thatscholarlyendeavourtook147yearstocompleteandcontainsallrecordedDutchwordsfromtheEarlyMiddleAgesonward. Spellingandwritingsystem[edit] Mainarticles:Dutchorthography,HistoryofDutchorthography,andDutchBraille DutchusesthedigraphIJasasingleletteranditcanbeseeninseveralvariations.Here,amarkingsayinglijnbus("line/route"+"bus";thetramlanealsoservesasbusroad). DutchiswrittenusingtheLatinscript.Dutchusesoneadditionalcharacterbeyondthestandardalphabet,thedigraphIJ.Ithasarelativelyhighproportionofdoubledletters,bothvowelsandconsonants,duetotheformationofcompoundwordsandalsotothespellingdevicesfordistinguishingthemanyvowelsoundsintheDutchlanguage.Anexampleoffiveconsecutivedoubledlettersisthewordvoorraaddoos(foodstoragecontainer).Thediaeresis(Dutch:trema)isusedtomarkvowelsthatarepronouncedseparatelywheninvolvingapre-orsuffix,andahyphenisusedwhentheproblemoccursincompoundwords.Forexample;"beïnvloed"(influenced),dezeeën(theseas)butzee-eend(scoter;litt:seaduck).Generally,otherdiacriticalmarksoccuronlyinloanwords.However,theacuteaccentcanalsobeusedforemphasisortodifferentiatebetweentwoforms,anditsmostcommonuseistodifferentiatebetweentheindefinitearticle'een'/ən/(a,an)andthenumeral'één'/e:n/(one). Sincethe1980s,theDutchLanguageUnionhasbeengiventhemandatetoreviewandmakerecommendationsontheofficialspellingofDutch.Spellingreformsundertakenbytheunionoccurredin1995and2005.IntheNetherlands,theofficialspellingiscurrentlygivenlegalbasisbytheSpellingActof15September2005.[n13][n14]TheSpellingActgivestheCommitteeofMinistersoftheDutchLanguageUniontheauthoritytodeterminethespellingofDutchbyministerialdecision.Inaddition,thelawrequiresthatthisspellingbefollowed"atthegovernmentalbodies,ateducationalinstitutionsfundedfromthepublicpurse,aswellasattheexamsforwhichlegalrequirementshavebeenestablished".Inothercases,itisrecommended,butitisnotmandatorytofollowtheofficialspelling.TheDecreeontheSpellingRegulations2005of2006containstheannexedspellingrulesdecidedbytheCommitteeofMinisterson25April2005.[n15][n16]InFlanders,thesamespellingrulesarecurrentlyappliedbytheDecreeoftheFlemishGovernmentEstablishingtheRulesoftheOfficialSpellingandGrammaroftheDutchlanguageof30June2006.[n17] TheWoordenlijstNederlandsetaal,morecommonlyknownas"hetgroeneboekje"(i.e."thegreenbooklet",becauseofitscolor),istheauthoritativeorthographicwordlist(withoutdefinitions)oftheDutchLanguageUnion;aversionwithdefinitionscanbehadasHetGroeneWoordenboek;botharepublishedbySdu. Exampletext[edit] TheArticle1oftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsinDutch: Allemensenwordenvrijengelijkinwaardigheidenrechtengeboren.Zijzijnbegiftigdmetverstandengeweten,enbehorenzichjegenselkanderineengeestvanbroederschaptegedragen.[124] TheArticle1oftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsinEnglish: Allhumanbeingsarebornfreeandequalindignityandrights.Theyareendowedwithreasonandconscienceandshouldacttowardsoneanotherinaspiritofbrotherhood.[125] Seealso[edit] Bargoens DutchBraille Dutchgrammar DutchLanguageUnion Dutchliterature Dutchname Dutchorthography Dutch-basedcreolelanguages Flemish SurinameseDutch FrenchFlemish GrandDictationoftheDutchLanguage Indo-Europeanlanguages Istvaeones ListofEnglishwordsofDutchorigin ListofterritorialentitieswhereAfrikaansandDutchareofficiallanguages LowDietsch LowFranconian Meuse-Rhenish MiddleDutch OldFrankish Notes[edit] ^InFrance,ahistoricaldialectcalledFrenchFlemishisspoken.Thereareabout80,000DutchspeakersinFrance;seeSimpson2009,p. 307.InFrenchFlanders,onlyaremnantof20,000Flemish-speakersremain;seeBerdichevsky2004,p. 90.FrenchFlemishisspokeninthenorth-westofFrancebyanestimatedpopulationof20,000dailyspeakersand40,000occasionalspeakers;seeEuropeanCommission2010.AdialectcontinuumexistsbetweenDutchandGermanthroughtheSouthGuelderishandLimburgishdialects.In1941,400,000IndonesiansspokeDutch,andDutchexertedamajorinfluenceonIndonesian;seeSneddon2003,p. 161.In1941,about0.5%oftheinlandpopulationhadareasonableknowledgeofDutch;seeMaier2005,p. 12.AtthebeginningofWorldWarII,aboutonemillionAsianshadanactivecommandofDutch,whileanadditionalhalfmillionhadapassiveknowledge;seeJones2008,p. xxxi.ManyolderIndonesiansspeakDutchasasecondlanguage;seeThomson2003,p. 80.SomeoftheethnicChineseinIndonesiaspeakDutchamongsteachother;seeTan2008,pp. 62–64,Erdentuğ&Colombijn2002,p. 104.Dutchisspokenby"smallergroupsofspeakers"inIndonesia;seeBussmann2002,p. 83.SomeyoungerIndonesianslearnDutchasaforeignlanguagebecausetheirparentsandgrandparentsmayspeakitandbecauseinsomecircles,Dutchisregardedasthelanguageoftheelite;seeVos2001,p. 91.Atpresent,onlyeducatedpeopleoftheoldestgeneration,inadditiontospecialistswhorequireknowledgeofthelanguage,canspeakDutchfluently;seeAmmonetal.2006,p. 2017.Around6.4%ofpresent-dayIndonesianvocabularycanbetracedbacktoDutchwords,seeTadmor2009,p. 698. ^410,000inUSA,159,000inCanada,47,000inAustralia;seeSimpson2009,p. 307.Between200,000and400,000inUSAalone;seeMcGoldrick,Giordano&Garcia-Preto2005,p. 536. ^AfrikaansisadaughterlanguageofDutch;seeBooij1999,p. 2,Jansen,Schreuder&Neijt2007,p. 5,Mennen,Levelt&Gerrits2006,p. 1,Booij2003,p. 4,Hiskens,Auer&Kerswill2005,p. 19,Heeringa&deWet2007,pp. 1,3,5. AfrikaanswashistoricallycalledCapeDutch;seeDeumert&Vandenbussche2003,p. 16,Conradie2005,p. 208,Sebba1997,p. 160,Langer&Davies2005,p. 144,Deumert2002,p. 3,Berdichevsky2004,p. 130. Afrikaansisrootedin17thcenturydialectsofDutch;seeHolm1989,p. 338,Geerts&Clyne1992,p. 71,Mesthrie1995,p. 214,Niesler,Louw&Roux2005,p. 459. Afrikaansisvariouslydescribedasacreole,apartiallycreolisedlanguage,oradeviantvarietyofDutch;seeSebba2007,p. 116. ^IthasthewidestgeographicalandracialdistributionofallofficiallanguagesofSouthAfrica;seeWebb2003,pp. 7,8,Berdichevsky2004,p. 131.Ithasbyfarthelargestgeographicaldistribution;seeAlant2004,p. 45.Itiswidelyspokenandunderstoodasasecondorthirdlanguage;seeDeumert&Vandenbussche2003,p. 16,Kamwangamalu2004,p. 207,Myers-Scotton2006,p. 389,Simpson2008,p. 324,Palmer2001,p. 141,Webb2002,p. 74,Herriman&Burnaby1996,p. 18,Page&Sonnenburg2003,p. 7,BrookNapier2007,pp. 69,71.Anestimated40 percentofSouthAfricanshaveatleastabasiclevelofcommunicationinAfrikaans;seeWebb2003,p. 7McLean&McCormick1996,p. 333.AfrikaansisalinguafrancaofNamibia;seeDeumert2004,p. 1,Adegbija1994,p. 26,Batibo2005,p. 79,Donaldson1993,p. xiii,Deumert&Vandenbussche2003,p. 16,Baker&PrysJones1998,p. 364,Domínguez&López1995,p. 399,Page&Sonnenburg2003,p. 8,CIA2010.WhilethenumberoftotalspeakersofAfrikaansisunknown,estimatesrangebetween15and23million.Afrikaanshas16.3millionspeakers;seedeSwaan2001,p. 216.Afrikaanshasatotalof16millionspeakers;seeMachan2009,p. 174.About9millionpeoplespeakAfrikaansasasecondorthirdlanguage;seeAlant2004,p. 45,Proost2006,p. 402.Afrikaanshasover5millionnativespeakersand15millionsecondlanguagespeakers;seeRéguer2004,p. 20.Afrikaanshasabout6millionnativeand16millionsecondlanguagespeakers;seeDomínguez&López1995,p. 340.InSouthAfrica,over23millionpeoplespeakAfrikaanstosomedegree,ofwhichathirdarefirst-languagespeakers;seePage&Sonnenburg2003,p. 7.L2"BlackAfrikaans"isspoken,withdifferentdegreesoffluency,byanestimated15million;seeStell2008–11,p. 1harvnberror:notarget:CITEREFStell2008–11(help).DutchandAfrikaanssharemutualintelligibility;seeGooskens2007,p. 453,Holm1989,p. 338,Baker&PrysJones1998,p. 302,EgilBreivik&HåkonJahr1987,p. 232.Forwrittenmutualintelligibility;seeSebba2007,p. 116,Sebba1997,p. 161.ItiseasierforDutchspeakerstounderstandAfrikaansthantheotherwayaround;seeGooskens2007,p. 454. ^DutchandEnglisharetheclosestrelativesofGerman;seeAbraham2006,p. 124.DutchistheclosestrelativeofGerman;seeCzepluch&Abraham2004,p. 13.DutchandEnglisharecloselyrelated;seeIngram1989,p. 494,Todd2004,p. 37,Kager1989,p. 105,Hogg2002,p. 134,DeBot,Lowie&Verspoor2005,pp. 130,166,Weissenborn&Höhle2001,p. 209,Crisma&Longobarde2009,p. 250.DutchandEnglishareverycloselyrelatedlanguages;seeFitzpatrick2007,p. 188.Dutchis,afterFrisian,theclosestrelativeofEnglish;seeMallory&Adams2006,p. 23,Classe2000,p. 390,Hogg2002,p. 3,Denning,Kessler&Leben2007,p. 22.EnglishismostcloselyrelatedtoDutch;seeLightfoot1999,p. 22,andmoresothantoGerman;seeSonnenschein2008,p. 100,KennedyWyld2009,p. 190. ^DutchistraditionallydescribedasmorphologicallybetweenEnglishandGerman,butsyntacticallyclosertoGerman;seeClyne2003,p. 133.DutchhasbeenpositionedtobebetweenEnglishandGerman;seePutnam2011,p. 108,Bussmann2002,p. 83,Müller1995,p. 121,Onysko&Michel2010,p. 210.Typologically,DutchtakesamidwaypositionbetweenEnglishandGerman,withasimilarwordordertothatofGerman,grammaticalgender,andalargelyGermanicvocabulary.ItismorphologicallyclosetoEnglish,andthecasesystemandsubjunctivehavelargelyfallenoutofuse;seeSwan&Smith2001,p. 6. ^DutchshareswithEnglishitssimplifiedmorphologyandtheabandonmentofthegrammaticalcasesystem;seeBooij1999,p. 1,Simpson2009,p. 309.IncontrasttoGerman,casemarkingshavebecomevestigialinEnglishandDutch;seeHogg2002,p. 134,Abraham2006,p. 118,Bussmann2002,p. 83,Swan&Smith2001,p. 6.TheumlautinDutchandEnglishmaturedtoamuchlesserextentthaninGerman;seeSimpson2009,p. 307,Lass1994,p. 70,Deprez1997,p. 251. ^Dutchhaseffectivelytwogenders;seeBooij1999,p. 1,Simpson2009,p. 309,DeVogelaer2009,p. 71.GrammaticalgenderhaslittlegrammaticalconsequencesinDutch;seeBussmann2002,p. 84 ^Simpson2009,p. 307,Booij1999,p. 1DutchandGermandonothaveastrictSVOorderasinEnglish;seeHogg2002,pp. 87,134.IncontrasttoEnglish,whichhasSVOastheunderlyingwordorder,forDutchandGermanthisisSV1OV2or(insubordinateclauses)SOV;seeIngram1989,p. 495,Jordens&Lalleman1988,pp. 149,150,177.DutchhasalmostthesamewordorderasGerman;seeSwan&Smith2001,p. 6. ^DutchvocabularyhasmoreGermanicwordsthanEnglishandmoreRomancewordsthanGerman;seeSimpson2009,p. 309,Swan&Smith2001,p. 17.DutchvocabularyismostlyGermanic;seeSwan&Smith2001,p. 6.DutchhasthemostsimilarvocabularytoEnglish;seeMallory&Adams2006,p. 1. ^FriedrichMaurerusesthetermIstvaeonicinsteadofFranconian;seeFriedrichMaurer(1942),NordgermanenundAlemannen:StudienzurgermanischenundfrühdeutschenSprachgeschichte,Stammes-undVolkskunde,Bern:VerlagFrancke. ^RecognitionofSurinamese-Dutch(Surinaams-Nederlands)asanequalnatiolectwasexpressedin1976bythepublicationoftheWoordenboekvanhetSurinaams-Nederlands–eengeannoteerdelijstvanSurinaams-Nederlandsewoordenenuitdrukkingen(DictionaryofSurinamDutch–anannotatedlistofSurinam-Dutchwordsandexpressions),seeJohannesvanDonselaarWoordenboekvanhetSurinaams-Nederlands–eengeannoteerdelijstvanSurinaams-Nederlandsewoordenenuitdrukkingen,Utrecht :InstituutA.W.deGrootvoorAlgemeneTaalwetenschapvandeRijksuniversiteitteUtrecht(1976),Amsterdam,E.T.Rap(1977)ISBN 90-6005-125-4,publishedin1989astheWoordenboekvanhetSurinaams-Nederlands(DictionaryofSurinamDutch),byVanDonselaar,andlaterbythepublicationoftheWoordenboekSurinaamsNederlands(DictionarySurinamDutch)in2009(editorRenatadeBies,incooperationwithlexicologistsWillyMartinenWillySmedts),whichwaspreviouslypublishedastheWoordenboekvandeSurinaamseBijdrageaanhetNederlands(DictionaryoftheSurinamContributiontoDutch"). ^seeSpellingwet(inDutch) ^Thiscameintoforceon22February2006,replacingtheActontheSpellingoftheDutchLanguageof14February1947.seeWetvoorschriftenschrijfwijzeNederlandschetaal(inDutch) ^seeBesluitbekendmakingspellingvoorschriften2005(inDutch) ^ThisdecreeenteredintoforceonAugust1,2006,replacingtheSpellingDecreeofJune19,1996.seeSpellingbesluit(inDutch) ^seeBesluitvandeVlaamseRegeringtotvaststellingvanderegelsvandeofficiëlespellingenspraakkunstvandeNederlandsetaal(inDutch) Citations[edit] ^DutchatEthnologue(19thed.,2016) ^abcEuropeanCommission(2006)."SpecialEurobarometer243:EuropeansandtheirLanguages(Survey)"(PDF).Europa.RetrievedFebruary3,2007."1%oftheEUpopulationclaimstospeakDutchwellenoughinordertohaveaconversation."(page153). ^ab"Dutch".LanguagesatLeicester.UniversityofLeicester. ^abcd"Feitenencijfers"[Factsandnumbers].taalunieversum.org(inDutch). ^"WelkeerkendetalenheeftNederland?"[WhichrecognizedlanguagesdoestheNetherlandshave?](inDutch).Rijksoverheid.January11,2016.RetrievedDecember27,2017. 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Baker,Colin;PrysJones,Sylvia(1998),Encyclopediaofbilingualismandbilingualeducation,MultilingualMattersLtd.,ISBN 9781853593628,retrievedMay19,2010 Berdichevsky,Norman(2004),Nations,language,andcitizenship,NormanBerdichevsky,ISBN 9780786427000,retrievedMay31,2010 Batibo,Herman(2005),LanguagedeclineanddeathinAfrica:causes,consequences,andchallenges,MultilingualMattersLtd,ISBN 9781853598081,retrievedMay24,2010 Booij,Geert(1999),"ThePhonologyofDutch.",OxfordLinguistics,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN 0-19-823869-X,retrievedMay24,2010 Booij,Geert(2003),"Constructionalidiomsandperiphrasis:theprogressiveconstructioninDutch."(PDF),ParadigmsandPeriphrasis,UniversityofKentucky,archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onMay3,2011,retrievedMay19,2010 Pierre,Brachin(1985),TheDutchLanguage:ASurvey,translatedbyVincent,Paul,Leiden:E.J.Brill,ISBN 9004075933,retrievedNovember3,2008 Bromber,Katrin;Smieja,Birgit(2004),"GlobalisationandAfricanlanguages:risksandbenefits",TrendsinLinguistics,WalterdeGruyter,ISBN 9783110180992,retrievedMay28,2010 BrookNapier,Diane(2007),Schuster,Katherine;Witkosky,David(eds.),"Languageoftheland:policy,politics,identity:Languages,languagelearning,andnationalisminSouthAfrica",Studiesinthehistoryofeducation,InformationAgePublishing,ISBN 9781593116170,retrievedMay19,2010 Bussmann,Hadumod(2002),Genderacrosslanguages,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,ISBN 9027218439,retrievedApril7,2011 Classe,Olive(2000),"EncyclopediaofLiteraryTranslationintoEnglish",SecondEdition,FitzroyDearborn,ISBN 9781884964367,retrievedMay19,2010 Clyne,MichaelG.(2003),Dynamicsoflanguagecontact:Englishandimmigrantlanguages,CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 9780521786485,retrievedApril7,2011 Crisma,Paola;Longobarde,Giuseppe(2009),"Historicalsyntaxandlinguistictheory",Oxfordlinguistics,OxfordUniversityPressUS,ISBN 9780191567988,retrievedNovember6,2010 Czepluch,Hartmut;Abraham,Werner(2004),FocusonGermanictypology,AkademieVerlag,ISBN 9783050041063,retrievedMay19,2010 Conradie,C.Jac(2005),"Thefinalstagesofdeflection–ThecaseofAfrikaans"het"",HistoricalLinguistics2005,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,ISBN 9027247994,retrievedMay29,2010 DeBot,Kees;Lowie,Wander;Verspoor,Marjolyn(2005),Secondlanguageacquisition,Routledge,ISBN 9780415338707,retrievedNovember6,2010 Denning,Keith;Kessler,Brett;Leben,WilliamR.(2007),Englishvocabularyelements,OxfordUniversityPressUS,ISBN 9780199724352,retrievedMay19,2010 Deprez,Kas(1997),Clyne,MichaelG.(ed.),"Diets,Nederlands,Nederduits,Hollands,Vlaams,BelgischNederlands",Undoingandredoingcorpusplanning,WalterdeGruyter,pp. 249–312,ISBN 9783110155099,retrievedMay10,2011 Deumert,Ana(2002),"Standardizationandsocialnetworks–TheemergenceanddiffusionofstandardAfrikaans",Standardization–StudiesfromtheGermaniclanguages,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,ISBN 9027247471,retrievedMay29,2010 Deumert,Ana;Vandenbussche,Wim(2003),"Germanicstandardizations:pasttopresent",TrendsinLinguistics,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,ISBN 9027218560,retrievedMay28,2010 Deumert,Ana(2004),LanguageStandardizationandLanguageChange:TheDynamicsofCapeDutch,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,ISBN 9027218579,retrievedNovember10,2008 deSwaan,Abram(2001),Wordsoftheworld:thegloballanguagesystem,A.deSwaan,ISBN 9780745627489,retrievedJune3,2010 DeVogelaer,Gunther(2009),Tsiplakou,Stavroula;Karyolemou,Marilena;Pavlou,PavlosY.(eds.),"Languagevariation—EuropeanperspectivesII:ChangingpronominalgenderinDutch:transmissionordiffusion?",InternationalConferenceonLanguageVariationinEurope,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,ISBN 9789027234858,retrievedMay9,2011 Domínguez,Francesc;López,Núria(1995),Sociolinguisticandlanguageplanningorganizations,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,ISBN 9027219516,retrievedMay28,2010 Donaldson,BruceC.(1993),AgrammarofAfrikaans,WalterdeGruyter,ISBN 9783110134261,retrievedMay28,2010 EgilBreivik,Leiv;HåkonJahr,Ernst(1987),Languagechange:contributionstothestudyofitscauses,WalterdeGruyter,ISBN 9783110119954,retrievedMay19,2010 Erdentuğ,Aygen;Colombijn,Freek(2002),Urbanethnicencounters:thespatialconsequences,Routledge,ISBN 9780203218778,retrievedJune29,2010 EuropeanCommission(2010),"FlemishinFrance",ResearchCentreofMultilingualism,Euromosaic,retrievedJune29,2010 Fitzpatrick,Eileen(2007),"Corpuslinguisticsbeyondtheword:corpusresearchfromphrasetodiscourse,Volume2004",LanguageandComputers:StudiesinPracticalLinguistics,Rodopi,vol. 60,ISBN 978-9042021358,retrievedNovember9,2010 Geerts,G.;Clyne,MichaelG.(1992),Pluricentriclanguages:differingnormsindifferentnations,WalterdeGruyter,ISBN 9783110128550,retrievedMay19,2010 Gooskens,Charlotte(2007),"TheContributionofLinguisticFactorstotheIntelligibilityofCloselyRelatedLanguages"(PDF),JournalofMultilingualandMulticulturalDevelopment,Volume28,IssueNovember6,2007,UniversityofGroningen,pp. 445–467,retrievedMay19,2010 Heeringa,Wilbert;deWet,Febe(2007),TheoriginofAfrikaanspronunciation:acomparisontowestGermaniclanguagesandDutchdialects(PDF),UniversityofGroningen,pp. 445–467,archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onApril29,2011,retrievedMay19,2010 Herriman,MichaelL.;Burnaby,Barbara(1996),LanguagepoliciesinEnglish-dominantcountries:sixcasestudies,MultilingualMattersLtd.,ISBN 9781853593468,retrievedMay19,2010 Hiskens,Frans;Auer,Peter;Kerswill,Paul(2005),Thestudyofdialectconvergenceanddivergence:conceptualandmethodologicalconsiderations(PDF),LancasterUniversity,retrievedMay19,2010 Hogg,RichardM.(2002),AnintroductiontoOldEnglish,OxfordUniversityPressUS,ISBN 9780195219487,retrievedNovember6,2010 Holm,JohnA.(1989),PidginsandCreoles:Referencessurvey,CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 9780521359405,retrievedMay19,2010 Ingram,David(1989),Firstlanguageacquisition:method,description,andexplanation,CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 9780521349161,retrievedNovember6,2010 Jansen,Carel;Schreuder,Robert;Neijt,Anneke(2007),"Theinfluenceofspellingconventionsonperceivedpluralityincompounds.AcomparisonofAfrikaansandDutch."(PDF),WrittenLanguage&Literacy10:2,RadboudUniversityNijmegen,archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onApril29,2011,retrievedMay19,2010 Jones,Russell(2008),"Loan-wordsinIndonesianandMalay",IndonesianEtymologicalProject,KITLVOfficeJakarta,YayasanOborIndonesia,ISBN 9789794617014,retrievedJune29,2010 Jordens,Peter;Lalleman,JosineA.(1988),"Languagedevelopment",AlgemeneVerenigingvoorTaalwetenschap,WalterdeGruyter,vol. 5,ISBN 9789067654012,retrievedNovember6,2010 Kager,René(1989),"AmetricaltheoryofstressanddestressinginEnglishandDutch",Linguisticmodels,WalterdeGruyter,vol. 14,ISBN 9789067654364,retrievedJune29,2010 Kamwangamalu,NkonkoM.(2004),Baldauf,RichardB.;Kaplan,RobertB.(eds.),LanguageplanningandpolicyinAfrica:ThelanguageplanningsituationinSouthAfrica,MultilingualMattersLtd.,ISBN 9781853597251,retrievedMay31,2010 KennedyWyld,HenryCecil(2009),TheGrowthofEnglish:AnElementaryAccountofthePresentFormofOurLanguage,andItsDevelopment,BiblioBazaar,LLC,ISBN 9781103063192,retrievedNovember6,2010 Langer,Nils;Davies,WinifredV.(2005),LinguisticpurismintheGermaniclanguages,WalterdeGruyter,ISBN 9783110183375,retrievedMay28,2010 Lass,Roger(1994),OldEnglish:ahistoricallinguisticcompanion,CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 9780521458481,retrievedNovember6,2010 Lightfoot,David(1999),"Thedevelopmentoflanguage:acquisition,change,andevolution",Blackwell/Marylandlecturesinlanguageandcognition,Wiley-Blackwell,vol. 1,ISBN 9780631210603,retrievedNovember6,2010 Machan,TimWilliam(2009),Languageanxiety:conflictandchangeinthehistoryofEnglish,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN 9780191552489,retrievedJune3,2010 Maier,H.M.J.(2005),AHiddenLanguage–DutchinIndonesia,InstituteofEuropeanStudies,UCBerkeley,retrievedJune3,2010 Mallory,J.P.;Adams,DouglasQ.(2006),TheOxfordintroductiontoProto-Indo-EuropeanandtheProto-Indo-Europeanworld,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN 9780199287918,retrievedMay31,2010 Maurer,Friedrich(1942),NordgermanenundAlemannen:StudienzurgermanischenundfrühdeutschenSprachgeschichte,Stammes-undVolkskunde,Strasbourg:Hünenburg. McGoldrick,Monica;Giordano,Joseph;Garcia-Preto,Nydia(2005),Ethnicityandfamilytherapy,GuilfordPress,ISBN 9781606237946,retrievedApril7,2011 McLean,Daryl;McCormick,Kay(1996),Fishman,JoshuaA.;Conrad,AndrewW.;Rubal-Lopez,Alma(eds.),Post-imperialEnglish:statuschangeinformerBritishandAmericancolonies,1940–1990:EnglishinSouthAfrica1940–1996,WalterdeGruyter,ISBN 9783110147544,retrievedMay31,2010 Mennen,Ineke;Levelt,Clara;Gerrits,Ellen(2006),"AcquisitionofDutchphonology:anoverview.",SpeechScienceResearchCentreWorkingPaperWP10,QueenMargaretUniversityCollege,retrievedMay19,2010 Mesthrie,Rajend,ed.(1995),LanguageandSocialHistory:StudiesinSouthAfricanSociolinguistics,NewAfricaBooks,ISBN 9780864862808,retrievedAugust23,2008 Mesthrie,Rajend(2002),LanguageinSouthAfrica,CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 9780521791052,retrievedMay18,2010 Müller,Gereon(1995),A-barsyntax:astudyinmovementtypes,WalterdeGruyter,ISBN 9783110144697,retrievedApril7,2011 Myers-Scotton,Carol(2006),Multiplevoices:anintroductiontobilingualism,BlackwellPublishing,ISBN 9780631219378,retrievedMay31,2010 Niesler,Thomas;Louw,Philippa;Roux,Justus(2005),"PhoneticanalysisofAfrikaans,English,XhosaandZuluusingSouthAfricanspeechdatabases"(PDF),SouthernAfricanLinguisticsandAppliedLanguageStudies,23(4):459–474,doi:10.2989/16073610509486401,S2CID 7138676,archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onDecember21,2012 Onysko,Alexander;Michel,Sascha(2010),CognitivePerspectivesonWordFormation,WalterdeGruyter,ISBN 9783110223590,retrievedApril7,2011 Palmer,VernonValentine(2001),Mixedjurisdictionsworldwide:thethirdlegalfamily,VernonV.Palmer,ISBN 9780521781541,retrievedJune3,2010 Page,MelvinEugene;Sonnenburg,PennyM.(2003),Colonialism:aninternational,social,cultural,andpoliticalencyclopedia,MelvinE.Page,ISBN 9781576073353,retrievedMay19,2010 Proost,Kristel(2006),Proost,Kristel;Winkler,Edeltraud(eds.),"VonIntentionalitätzurBedeutungkonventionalisierterZeichen:SpurenderKreolisierungimLexikondesAfrikaans",StudienzurDeutschenSprache(inGerman),GunterNarrVerlag,ISBN 9783823362289,retrievedJune3,2010 Putnam,MichaelT.(2011),StudiesonGerman-languageIslands,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,ISBN 978-9027205902,retrievedApril7,2011 Réguer,LaurentPhilippe(2004),Siloin,siproche...:Unelangueeuropéenneàdécouvrir :lenéerlandais(inFrench),SorbonneNouvelle,ISBN 9782910212308,retrievedJune3,2010 Sebba,Mark(1997),Contactlanguages:pidginsandcreoles,PalgraveMacmillan,ISBN 9780312175719,retrievedMay19,2010 Sebba,Mark(2007),Spellingandsociety:thecultureandpoliticsoforthographyaroundtheworld,CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 9781139462020,retrievedMay19,2010 Shetter,WilliamZ.;Ham,Esther(2007),Dutch:anessentialgrammar,Taylor&Francis,ISBN 9780199286751,retrievedJune29,2010 Simpson,Andrew(2008),LanguageandnationalidentityinAfrica,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN 9780199286751,retrievedMay31,2010 Simpson,J.M.Y.(2009),Brown,Keith;Ogilvie,Sarah(eds.),Conciseencyclopediaoflanguagesoftheworld:Dutch,Elsevier,ISBN 9780080877754,retrievedJune29,2010 Sneddon,JamesN.(2003),TheIndonesianlanguage:itshistoryandroleinmodernsociety,UNSWPress,ISBN 9780868405988,retrievedJune29,2010 Sonnenschein,E.A.(2008),ANewEnglishGrammarBasedontheRecommendationsoftheJointCommitteeonGrammaticalTerminology,ReadBooks,ISBN 9781408689295,retrievedNovember6,2010 Stell,Gerard(2008),Mappinglinguisticcommunicationacrosscolourdivides:BlackAfrikaansinCentralSouthAfrica,VrijeUniversiteitBrussel,retrievedJune2,2010 Swan,Michael;Smith,Bernard(2001),LearnerEnglish:ateacher'sguidetointerferenceandotherproblems,Volume1,CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 9780521779395,retrievedApril7,2011 Tadmor,Uri(2009),"LoanwordsinIndonesian",inMartinHaspelmath;UriTadmor(eds.),LoanwordsintheWorld'sLanguages:AComparativeHandbook,Berlin:WalterdeGruyter,pp. 686–716,ISBN 9783110218435 Tan,MelyG.(2008),"EtnisTionghoadiIndonesia:kumpulantulisan",EthnicChineseinIndonesia;collectedarticles.,YayasanOborIndonesia,ISBN 9789794616895,retrievedJune29,2010 Thomson,WilliamR.(2003),Page,Kogan(ed.),Asia&PacificReview2003/04:TheEconomicandBusinessReport:Indonesia,KoganPagePublishers,pp. 76–85,ISBN 9780749440633,retrievedJune3,2010 Todd,Loreto(2004),PidginsandCreoles,Routledge,ISBN 9780415053112,retrievedNovember6,2010 Vos,MeiLi(2001),Internationalcooperationbetweenpoliticsandpractice:howDutchIndonesiancooperationchangedremarkablylittleafteradiplomaticrupture,HetSpinhuis,ISBN 9789055892013,retrievedJune29,2010 Webb,VictorN.(2002),"LanguageinSouthAfrica:theroleoflanguageinnationaltransformation,reconstructionanddevelopment",ImpactStudiesinLanguageandSociety,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,ISBN 9027218498 Webb,VictorN.(2003),"LanguagepolicydevelopmentinSouthAfrica"(PDF),CentreforResearchinthePoliticsofLanguage,UniversityofPretoria,archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onDecember9,2003 Weissenborn,Jürgen;Höhle,Barbara(2001),"Approachestobootstrapping",Phonological,lexical,syntacticandneurophysiologicalaspectsofearlylanguageacquisition,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,vol. 1,ISBN 9027224919,retrievedNovember6,2010 Willemyns,Roland(2013),Dutch:BiographyofaLanguage,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN 9780199858712 NamibianPopulationCensus(2001),LanguagesSpokeninNamibia,GovernmentofNamibia,archivedfromtheoriginalonMay16,2010,retrievedMay28,2010 CIA(2010),TheWorldFactbook(CIA)—Namibia,CentralIntelligenceAgency,retrievedMay28,2010 Externallinks[edit] DutcheditionofWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia DutchlanguageatCurlie TheNederlandseTaalunie,Dutchlanguageunion TheDutchLearner'sGrammar,fromTheUniversityofSheffield) 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