State (polity) - Wikipedia

A state is a polity under a system of governance with a monopoly on force. There is no undisputed definition of a state. A widely used definition from the ... State(polity) FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Organisedcommunitylivingunderasystemofgovernmentwithamonopolyonforce "TheState"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeState. PartofthePoliticsseriesBasicformsofgovernment Listofformsofgovernment Sourceofpower Democracy(rulebymany) Demarchy Direct Liberal Representative Social Socialist Others Oligarchy(rulebyfew) Anocracy Aristocracy Gerontocracy Kleptocracy Kritarchy Noocracy Particracy Plutocracy Stratocracy Technocracy Autocracy(rulebyone) Despotism Dictatorship Militarydictatorship Tyranny Anarchism(rulebynone) Anarchy Freeassociation Stateless Powerideology MonarchyRepublic(socio-politicalideologies) Absolute Constitutional Directorial Legalist Parliamentary Presidential Semi-presidential Socialist AuthoritarianLibertarian(socio-economicideologies) Anarchism Colonialism Communism Despotism Distributism Feudalism Socialism Totalitarianism Tribalism GlobalLocal(geo-culturalideologies) Commune City-state Intergovernmentalorganisation Nationalgovernment Worldgovernment Nationalism Internationalism Globalism Powerstructure Unitarism Unitarystate Empire Principality Clientstate Associatedstate Dependentterritory Dominion Protectorate Puppetstate Puppetmonarch Satellitestate Self-governingcolony Tributarystate BufferState Vassalstate Viceroyalty Federalism Confederation Devolution Federation Superstate Supranationalunion Internationalrelations Smallpower Regionalpower Middlepower Greatpower Superpower Administrativedivision  Politicsportalvte ThefrontispieceofThomasHobbes'Leviathan Astateisapolityunderasystemofgovernancewithamonopolyonforce.Thereisnoundisputeddefinitionofastate.[1][2]AwidelyuseddefinitionfromtheGermansociologistMaxWeberisthata"state"isapolitythatmaintainsamonopolyonthelegitimateuseofviolence,althoughotherdefinitionsarenotuncommon.[3][4]Astateisnotsynonymouswithagovernment,asstatelessgovernmentsliketheIroquoisConfederacyexist.[5] Inafederalunion,theterm"state"issometimesusedtorefertothefederatedpolitiesthatmakeupthefederation.(Othertermsthatareusedinsuchfederalsystemsmayinclude“province”,“region”orotherterms.) Mostofthehumanpopulationhasexistedwithinastatesystemformillennia;however,formostofprehistorypeoplelivedinstatelesssocieties.Theearliestformsofstatesaroseabout5,500yearsagoinconjunctionwithrapidgrowthofcities,inventionofwritingandcodificationofnewformsofreligion.Overtime,avarietyofdifferentformsdeveloped,employingavarietyofjustificationsfortheirexistence(suchasdivineright,thetheoryofthesocialcontract,etc.).Today,themodernnationstateisthepredominantformofstatetowhichpeoplearesubject.[6] Contents 1Etymology 2Definition 2.1Typesofstates 2.2Stateandgovernment 2.3Statesandnation-states 2.4Stateandcivilsociety 2.5Statesymbols 3History 3.1Pre-historicstatelesssocieties 3.2Neolithicperiod 3.3AncientEurasia 3.4Classicalantiquity 3.5Feudalstate 3.6Modernstate 4Theoriesfortheemergenceofthestate 4.1Earlieststates 4.2Modernstate 5Theoriesofstatefunction 5.1Anarchistperspective 5.2Anarcho-capitalistperspective 5.3Marxistperspective 5.4Pluralism 5.5Contemporarycriticalperspectives 5.6Structuraluniverseofthestateorstructuralrealityofthestate 5.7Stateautonomywithininstitutionalism 6Theoriesofstatelegitimacy 6.1SocialContractTheory 6.2Divinerightofkings 6.3Rational-legalauthority 7Statefailure 8Seealso 9References 9.1Notes 9.2Bibliography 10Furtherreading 11Externallinks Etymology[edit] ThewordstateanditscognatesinsomeotherEuropeanlanguages(statoinItalian,estadoinSpanishandPortuguese,étatinFrench,StaatinGerman)ultimatelyderivefromtheLatinwordstatus,meaning"condition,circumstances".Latinstatusderivesfromstare,"tostand,"orremainorbepermanent,thusprovidingthesacredormagicalconnotationofthepoliticalentity. TheEnglishnounstateinthegenericsense"condition,circumstances"predatesthepoliticalsense.ItwasintroducedtoMiddleEnglishc.1200bothfromOldFrenchanddirectlyfromLatin. WiththerevivaloftheRomanlawin14th-centuryEurope,thetermcametorefertothelegalstandingofpersons(suchasthevarious"estatesoftherealm"–noble,common,andclerical),andinparticularthespecialstatusoftheking.Thehighestestates,generallythosewiththemostwealthandsocialrank,werethosethatheldpower.ThewordalsohadassociationswithRomanideas(datingbacktoCicero)aboutthe"statusreipublicae",the"conditionofpublicmatters".Intime,thewordlostitsreferencetoparticularsocialgroupsandbecameassociatedwiththelegalorderoftheentiresocietyandtheapparatusofitsenforcement.[7] Theearly16th-centuryworksofMachiavelli(especiallyThePrince)playedacentralroleinpopularizingtheuseoftheword"state"insomethingsimilartoitsmodernsense.[8]Thecontrastingofchurchandstatestilldatestothe16thcentury.TheNorthAmericancolonieswerecalled"states"asearlyasthe1630s.[citationneeded]Theexpressionl'Etat,c'estmoi("IamtheState")attributedtoLouisXIV,althoughprobablyapocryphal,isrecordedinthelate18thcentury.[9] Definition[edit] Thereisnoacademicconsensusonthedefinitionofthestate.[1]Theterm"state"referstoasetofdifferent,butinterrelatedandoftenoverlapping,theoriesaboutacertainrangeofpoliticalphenomena.[2]AccordingtoWalterScheidel,mainstreamdefinitionsofthestatehavethefollowingincommon:"centralizedinstitutionsthatimposerules,andbackthemupbyforce,overaterritoriallycircumscribedpopulation;adistinctionbetweentherulersandtheruled;andanelementofautonomy,stability,anddifferentiation.Thesedistinguishthestatefromlessstableformsoforganization,suchastheexerciseofchieflypower."[10] ThemostcommonlyuseddefinitionisbyMaxWeber[11][12][13][14][15]whodescribesthestateasacompulsorypoliticalorganizationwithacentralizedgovernmentthatmaintainsamonopolyofthelegitimateuseofforcewithinacertainterritory.[3][4]Weberwritesthatthestate"isahumancommunitythat(successfully)claimsthemonopolyofthelegitimateuseofphysicalforcewithinagiventerritory."[16] CharlesTillydefinesstatesas"coercion-wieldingorganisationsthataredistinctfromhouseholdsandkinshipgroupsandexerciseclearpriorityinsomerespectsoverallotherorganizationswithinsubstantialterritories."[17]Tillyincludescity-states,theocraciesandempiresinhisdefinitionalongwithnation-states,butexcludestribes,lineages,firmsandchurches.[18]AccordingtoTilly,statesbeganappearingaround990,butbecameparticularlyprominentafter1490.[18]Tillydefinesastate's"essentialminimalactivities"as: Warmaking–"eliminatingorneutralizingtheirownrivals" Statemaking–"eliminatingorneutralizingtheirrivalsinsidetheirownterritory" Protection–"eliminatingorneutralizingtheenemiesoftheirclients" Extraction–"acquiringthemeansofcarryingoutthefirstthreeactivities" Adjudication–"authoritativesettlementofdisputesamongmembersofthepopulation" Distribution–"interventionintheallocationofgoodsamongthemembersofthepopulation" Production–"controlofthecreationandtransformationofgoodsandservicesproducedbythepopulation"[19][20] Liberalthoughtprovidesanotherpossibleteleologyofthestate.AccordingtoJohnLocke,thegoalofthestateorcommonwealthis"thepreservationofproperty"(SecondTreatiseonGovernment),with'property'inLocke'sworkreferringnotonlytopersonalpossessionsbutalsotoone'slifeandliberty.Onthisaccount,thestateprovidesthebasisforsocialcohesionandproductivity,creatingincentivesforwealth-creationbyprovidingguaranteesofprotectionforone'slife,libertyandpersonalproperty.ProvisionofpublicgoodsisconsideredbysomesuchasAdamSmith[21]asacentralfunctionofthestate,sincethesegoodswouldotherwisebeunderprovided.Tillyhaschallengednarrativesofthestateasbeingtheresultofasocietalcontractorprovisionofservicesinafreemarket– hecharacterizesthestatemoreakinasaprotectionracketintheveinoforganizedcrime.[20] Whileeconomicandpoliticalphilosophershavecontestedthemonopolistictendencyofstates,[22]RobertNozickarguesthattheuseofforcenaturallytendstowardsmonopoly.[23] AnothercommonlyaccepteddefinitionofthestateistheonegivenattheMontevideoConventiononRightsandDutiesofStatesin1933.Itprovidesthat"[t]hestateasapersonofinternationallawshouldpossessthefollowingqualifications:(a)apermanentpopulation;(b)adefinedterritory;(c)government;and(d)capacitytoenterintorelationswiththeotherstates."[24]Andthat"[t]hefederalstateshallconstituteasolepersonintheeyesofinternationallaw."[25] Confoundingthedefinitionproblemisthat"state"and"government"areoftenusedassynonymsincommonconversationandevensomeacademicdiscourse.Accordingtothisdefinitionschema,thestatesarenonphysicalpersonsofinternationallaw,governmentsareorganizationsofpeople.[26]Therelationshipbetweenagovernmentanditsstateisoneofrepresentationandauthorizedagency.[27] Typesofstates[edit] CharlesTillydistinguishedbetweenempires,theocracies,city-statesandnation-states.[18]AccordingtoMichaelMann,thefourpersistenttypesofstateactivitiesare: Maintenanceofinternalorder Militarydefenceandaggression Maintenanceofcommunicationsinfrastructure Economicredistribution[28] Statesmaybeclassifiedbypoliticalphilosophersassovereigniftheyarenotdependenton,orsubjecttoanyotherpowerorstate.Otherstatesaresubjecttoexternalsovereigntyorhegemonywhereultimatesovereigntyliesinanotherstate.[29]Manystatesarefederatedstateswhichparticipateinafederalunion.Afederatedstateisaterritorialandconstitutionalcommunityformingpartofafederation.[30](CompareconfederaciesorconfederationssuchasSwitzerland.)Suchstatesdifferfromsovereignstatesinthattheyhavetransferredaportionoftheirsovereignpowerstoafederalgovernment.[31] Onecancommonlyandsometimesreadily(butnotnecessarilyusefully)classifystatesaccordingtotheirapparentmake-uporfocus.Theconceptofthenation-state,theoreticallyorideallyco-terminouswitha"nation",becameverypopularbythe20thcenturyinEurope,butoccurredrarelyelsewhereoratothertimes.Incontrast,somestateshavesoughttomakeavirtueoftheirmulti-ethnicormultinationalcharacter(HabsburgAustria-Hungary,forexample,ortheSovietUnion),andhaveemphasisedunifyingcharacteristicssuchasautocracy,monarchicallegitimacy,orideology.Otherstates,oftenfascistorauthoritarianones,promotedstate-sanctionednotionsofracialsuperiority.[32]Otherstatesmaybringideasofcommonalityandinclusivenesstothefore:notetherespublicaofancientRomeandtheRzeczpospolitaofPoland-Lithuaniawhichfindsechoesinthemodern-dayrepublic.Theconceptoftemplestatescentredonreligiousshrinesoccursinsomediscussionsoftheancientworld.[33]Relativelysmallcity-states,oncearelativelycommonandoftensuccessfulformofpolity,[34]havebecomerarerandcomparativelylessprominentinmoderntimes.Modern-dayindependentcity-statesincludeVaticanCity,Monaco,andSingapore.Othercity-statessurviveasfederatedstates,likethepresentdayGermancity-states,orasotherwiseautonomousentitieswithlimitedsovereignty,likeHongKong,GibraltarandCeuta.Tosomeextent,urbansecession,thecreationofanewcity-state(sovereignorfederated),continuestobediscussedintheearly21stcenturyincitiessuchasLondon. Stateandgovernment[edit] Seealso:Government Astatecanbedistinguishedfromagovernment.Thestateistheorganizationwhilethegovernmentistheparticulargroupofpeople,theadministrativebureaucracythatcontrolsthestateapparatusatagiventime.[35][36][37]Thatis,governmentsarethemeansthroughwhichstatepowerisemployed.Statesareservedbyacontinuoussuccessionofdifferentgovernments.[37]Statesareimmaterialandnonphysicalsocialobjects,whereasgovernmentsaregroupsofpeoplewithcertaincoercivepowers.[38] Eachsuccessivegovernmentiscomposedofaspecializedandprivilegedbodyofindividuals,whomonopolizepoliticaldecision-making,andareseparatedbystatusandorganizationfromthepopulationasawhole. Statesandnation-states[edit] Seealso:Nation-state Statescanalsobedistinguishedfromtheconceptofa"nation",where"nation"referstoacultural-politicalcommunityofpeople.Anation-statereferstoasituationwhereasingleethnicityisassociatedwithaspecificstate. Stateandcivilsociety[edit] Intheclassicalthought,thestatewasidentifiedwithbothpoliticalsocietyandcivilsocietyasaformofpoliticalcommunity,whilethemodernthoughtdistinguishedthenationstateasapoliticalsocietyfromcivilsocietyasaformofeconomicsociety.[39] Thusinthemodernthoughtthestateiscontrastedwithcivilsociety.[40][41][42] AntonioGramscibelievedthatcivilsocietyistheprimarylocusofpoliticalactivitybecauseitiswhereallformsof"identityformation,ideologicalstruggle,theactivitiesofintellectuals,andtheconstructionofhegemonytakeplace."andthatcivilsocietywasthenexusconnectingtheeconomicandpoliticalsphere.ArisingoutofthecollectiveactionsofcivilsocietyiswhatGramscicalls"politicalsociety",whichGramscidifferentiatesfromthenotionofthestateasapolity.Hestatedthatpoliticswasnota"one-wayprocessofpoliticalmanagement"but,rather,thattheactivitiesofcivilorganizationsconditionedtheactivitiesofpoliticalpartiesandstateinstitutions,andwereconditionedbytheminturn.[43][44]LouisAlthusserarguedthatcivilorganizationssuchaschurch,schools,andthefamilyarepartofan"ideologicalstateapparatus"whichcomplementsthe"repressivestateapparatus"(suchaspoliceandmilitary)inreproducingsocialrelations.[45][46][47] JürgenHabermasspokeofapublicspherethatwasdistinctfromboththeeconomicandpoliticalsphere.[48] Giventherolethatmanysocialgroupshaveinthedevelopmentofpublicpolicyandtheextensiveconnectionsbetweenstatebureaucraciesandotherinstitutions,ithasbecomeincreasinglydifficulttoidentifytheboundariesofthestate.Privatization,nationalization,andthecreationofnewregulatorybodiesalsochangetheboundariesofthestateinrelationtosociety.Oftenthenatureofquasi-autonomousorganizationsisunclear,generatingdebateamongpoliticalscientistsonwhethertheyarepartofthestateorcivilsociety.Somepoliticalscientiststhusprefertospeakofpolicynetworksanddecentralizedgovernanceinmodernsocietiesratherthanofstatebureaucraciesanddirectstatecontroloverpolicy.[49] Statesymbols[edit] Seealso:Nationalsymbol flag coatofarmsornationalemblem sealorstamp nationalmotto nationalcolors nationalanthem History[edit] Theearliestformsofthestateemergedwheneveritbecamepossibletocentralizepowerinadurableway.Agricultureandasettledpopulationhavebeenattributedasnecessaryconditionstoformstates.[50][51][52][53]Certaintypesofagriculturearemoreconducivetostateformation,suchasgrain(wheat,barley,millet),becausetheyaresuitedtoconcentratedproduction,taxation,andstorage.[50][54][55][56]Agricultureandwritingarealmosteverywhereassociatedwiththisprocess:agriculturebecauseitallowedfortheemergenceofasocialclassofpeoplewhodidnothavetospendmostoftheirtimeprovidingfortheirownsubsistence,andwriting(oranequivalentofwriting,likeIncaquipus)becauseitmadepossiblethecentralizationofvitalinformation.[57]Bureaucratizationmadeexpansionoverlargeterritoriespossible.[58] ThefirstknownstateswerecreatedintheEgypt,Mesopotamia,India,China,Mesoamerica,andtheAndes.Itisonlyinrelativelymoderntimesthatstateshavealmostcompletelydisplacedalternative"stateless"formsofpoliticalorganizationofsocietiesallovertheplanet.Rovingbandsofhunter-gatherersandevenfairlysizableandcomplextribalsocietiesbasedonherdingoragriculturehaveexistedwithoutanyfull-timespecializedstateorganization,andthese"stateless"formsofpoliticalorganizationhaveinfactprevailedforalloftheprehistoryandmuchofthehistoryofthehumanspeciesandcivilization. Theprimarycompetingorganizationalformstothestatewerereligiousorganizations(suchastheChurch),andcityrepublics.[59] Sincethelate19thcentury,virtuallytheentiretyoftheworld'sinhabitablelandhasbeenparcelledupintoareaswithmoreorlessdefinitebordersclaimedbyvariousstates.Earlier,quitelargelandareashadbeeneitherunclaimedoruninhabited,orinhabitedbynomadicpeopleswhowerenotorganisedasstates.However,evenwithinpresent-daystatestherearevastareasofwilderness,liketheAmazonrainforest,whichareuninhabitedorinhabitedsolelyormostlybyindigenouspeople(andsomeofthemremainuncontacted).Also,thereareso-called"failedstates"whichdonotholddefactocontroloveralloftheirclaimedterritoryorwherethiscontrolischallenged.Currentlytheinternationalcommunitycomprisesaround200sovereignstates,thevastmajorityofwhicharerepresentedintheUnitedNations.[citationneeded] Pre-historicstatelesssocieties[edit] Mainarticle:Statelesssocieties Formostofhumanhistory,peoplehavelivedinstatelesssocieties,characterizedbyalackofconcentratedauthority,andtheabsenceoflargeinequalitiesineconomicandpoliticalpower. TheanthropologistTimIngoldwrites: Itisnotenoughtoobserve,inanowratherdatedanthropologicalidiom,thathuntergathererslivein'statelesssocieties',asthoughtheirsociallivesweresomehowlackingorunfinished,waitingtobecompletedbytheevolutionarydevelopmentofastateapparatus.Rather,theprincipaloftheirsocialty,asPierreClastreshasputit,isfundamentallyagainstthestate.[60] Neolithicperiod[edit] Furtherinformation:NeolithicandCopperAgestatesocieties DuringtheNeolithicperiod,humansocietiesunderwentmajorculturalandeconomicchanges,includingthedevelopmentofagriculture,theformationofsedentarysocietiesandfixedsettlements,increasingpopulationdensities,andtheuseofpotteryandmorecomplextools.[61][62] Sedentaryagricultureledtothedevelopmentofpropertyrights,domesticationofplantsandanimals,andlargerfamilysizes.Italsoprovidedthebasisforthecentralizedstateform[63]byproducingalargesurplusoffood,whichcreatedamorecomplexdivisionoflaborbyenablingpeopletospecializeintasksotherthanfoodproduction.[64]Earlystateswerecharacterizedbyhighlystratifiedsocieties,withaprivilegedandwealthyrulingclassthatwassubordinatetoamonarch.Therulingclassesbegantodifferentiatethemselvesthroughformsofarchitectureandotherculturalpracticesthatweredifferentfromthoseofthesubordinatelaboringclasses.[65] Inthepast,itwassuggestedthatthecentralizedstatewasdevelopedtoadministerlargepublicworkssystems(suchasirrigationsystems)andtoregulatecomplexeconomies.However,modernarchaeologicalandanthropologicalevidencedoesnotsupportthisthesis,pointingtotheexistenceofseveralnon-stratifiedandpoliticallydecentralizedcomplexsocieties.[66] AncientEurasia[edit] Seealso:Mesopotamia,AncientEgypt,IndusValleyCivilization,andGovernmentoftheHanDynasty Mesopotamiaisgenerallyconsideredtobethelocationoftheearliestcivilizationorcomplexsociety,meaningthatitcontainedcities,full-timedivisionoflabor,socialconcentrationofwealthintocapital,unequaldistributionofwealth,rulingclasses,communitytiesbasedonresidencyratherthankinship,longdistancetrade,monumentalarchitecture,standardizedformsofartandculture,writing,andmathematicsandscience.[67][68]Itwastheworld'sfirstliteratecivilization,andformedthefirstsetsofwrittenlaws.[69][70] Classicalantiquity[edit] Seealso:AtheniandemocracyandRomanRepublic PaintingofRomanSenatorsencirclingJuliusCaesar Althoughstate-formsexistedbeforetheriseoftheAncientGreekempire,theGreekswerethefirstpeopleknowntohaveexplicitlyformulatedapoliticalphilosophyofthestate,andtohaverationallyanalyzedpoliticalinstitutions.Priortothis,statesweredescribedandjustifiedintermsofreligiousmyths.[71] SeveralimportantpoliticalinnovationsofclassicalantiquitycamefromtheGreekcity-statesandtheRomanRepublic.TheGreekcity-statesbeforethe4thcenturygrantedcitizenshiprightstotheirfreepopulation,andinAthenstheserightswerecombinedwithadirectlydemocraticformofgovernmentthatwastohavealongafterlifeinpoliticalthoughtandhistory. Feudalstate[edit] Seealso:FeudalismandMiddleAges DuringMedievaltimesinEurope,thestatewasorganizedontheprincipleoffeudalism,andtherelationshipbetweenlordandvassalbecamecentraltosocialorganization.Feudalismledtothedevelopmentofgreatersocialhierarchies.[72] Theformalizationofthestrugglesovertaxationbetweenthemonarchandotherelementsofsociety(especiallythenobilityandthecities)gaverisetowhatisnowcalledtheStandestaat,orthestateofEstates,characterizedbyparliamentsinwhichkeysocialgroupsnegotiatedwiththekingaboutlegalandeconomicmatters.Theseestatesoftherealmsometimesevolvedinthedirectionoffully-fledgedparliaments,butsometimeslostoutintheirstruggleswiththemonarch,leadingtogreatercentralizationoflawmakingandmilitarypowerinhishands.Beginninginthe15thcentury,thiscentralizingprocessgivesrisetotheabsolutiststate.[73] Modernstate[edit] Seealso:Bureaucracy,Constitution,Corporation,Globalization,andNeoliberalism Culturalandnationalhomogenizationfiguredprominentlyintheriseofthemodernstatesystem.Sincetheabsolutistperiod,stateshavelargelybeenorganizedonanationalbasis.Theconceptofanationalstate,however,isnotsynonymouswithnationstate.Eveninthemostethnicallyhomogeneoussocietiesthereisnotalwaysacompletecorrespondencebetweenstateandnation,hencetheactiveroleoftentakenbythestatetopromotenationalismthroughemphasisonsharedsymbolsandnationalidentity.[74] CharlesTillyarguesthatthenumberoftotalstatesinWesternEuropedeclinedrapidlyfromtheLateMiddleAgestoEarlyModernEraduringaprocessofstateformation.[75]Otherresearchhasdisputedwhethersuchadeclinetookplace.[76] AccordingtoHendrikSpruyt,themodernstateisdifferentfromitspredecessorpolitiesintwomainaspects:(1)Modernstateshavegreatercapacitytointerveneintheirsocieties,and(2)Modernstatesarebuttressedbytheprincipleofinternationallegalsovereigntyandthejuridicialequivalenceofstates.[77]ThetwofeaturesbegantoemergeintheLateMiddleAgesbutthemodernstateformtookcenturiestocomefirmlyintofruition.[77]Otheraspectsofmodernstatesisthattheytendtobeorganizedasunifiednationalpolities,andthattheyhaverational-legalbureaucracies.[78] SovereignequalitydidnotbecomefullyglobaluntilafterWorldWarIIamiddecolonization.[77]AdomGetachewwritesthatitwasnotuntilthe1960DeclarationontheGrantingofIndependencetoColonialCountriesandPeoplesthattheinternationallegalcontextforpopularsovereigntywasinstituted.[79] Theoriesfortheemergenceofthestate[edit] Earlieststates[edit] Theoriesfortheemergenceoftheearlieststatesemphasizegrainagricultureandsettledpopulationsasnecessaryconditions.[68]Somearguethatclimatechangeledtoagreaterconcentrationofhumanpopulationsarounddwindlingwaterways.[68] Modernstate[edit] HendrikSpruytdistinguishesbetweenthreeprominentcategoriesofexplanationsfortheemergenceofthemodernstateasadominantpolity:(1)Security-basedexplanationsthatemphasizetheroleofwarfare,(2)Economy-basedexplanationsthatemphasizetrade,propertyrightsandcapitalismasdriversbehindstateformation,and(3)Institutionalisttheoriesthatseesthestateasanorganizationalformthatisbetterabletoresolveconflictandcooperationproblemsthancompetingpoliticalorganizations.[77] AccordingtoPhilipGorskiandVivekSwaroopSharma,the"neo-Darwinian"frameworkfortheemergenceofsovereignstatesisthedominantexplanationinthescholarship.[80]Theneo-Darwininianframeworkemphasizeshowthemodernstateemergedasthedominantorganizationalformthroughnaturalselectionandcompetition.[80] Theoriesofstatefunction[edit] Seealso:CorporatismandElitetheory Mostpoliticaltheoriesofthestatecanroughlybeclassifiedintotwocategories.Thefirstareknownas"liberal"or"conservative"theories,whichtreatcapitalismasagiven,andthenconcentrateonthefunctionofstatesincapitalistsociety.Thesetheoriestendtoseethestateasaneutralentityseparatedfromsocietyandtheeconomy.Marxistandanarchisttheoriesontheotherhand,seepoliticsasintimatelytiedinwitheconomicrelations,andemphasizetherelationbetweeneconomicpowerandpoliticalpower.Theyseethestateasapartisaninstrumentthatprimarilyservestheinterestsoftheupperclass.[37] Anarchistperspective[edit] Mainarticle:Anarchism IWWposter"PyramidofCapitalistSystem"(c.1911),depictingananti-capitalistperspectiveonstatist/capitalistsocialstructures Anarchismisapoliticalphilosophywhichconsidersthestateandhierarchiestobeunnecessaryandharmfulandinsteadpromotesastatelesssociety,oranarchy,aself-managed,self-governedsocietybasedonvoluntary,cooperativeinstitutions. Anarchistsbelievethatthestateisinherentlyaninstrumentofdominationandrepression,nomatterwhoisincontrolofit.Anarchistsnotethatthestatepossessesthemonopolyonthelegaluseofviolence.UnlikeMarxists,anarchistsbelievethatrevolutionaryseizureofstatepowershouldnotbeapoliticalgoal.Theybelieveinsteadthatthestateapparatusshouldbecompletelydismantled,andanalternativesetofsocialrelationscreated,whicharenotbasedonstatepoweratall.[81][82] VariousChristiananarchists,suchasJacquesEllul,haveidentifiedtheStateandpoliticalpowerastheBeastintheBookofRevelation.[83][84] Anarcho-capitalistperspective[edit] Mainarticle:Anarcho-capitalism Anarcho-capitalistssuchasMurrayRothbardcometosomeofthesameconclusionsaboutthestateapparatusasanarchists,butfordifferentreasons.[85]Thetwoprinciplesthatanarchistsrelyonmostareconsentandnon-initiation.[86]Consentinanarcho-capitalisttheoryrequiresthatindividualsexplicitlyassenttothejurisdictionoftheStateexcludingLockeantacitconsent.Consentmayalsocreatearightofsecessionwhichdestroysanyconceptofgovernmentmonopolyonforce.[85][87]Coercivemonopoliesareexcludedbythenon-initiationofforceprinciplebecausetheymustuseforceinordertopreventothersfromofferingthesameservicethattheydo.Anarcho-capitalistsstartfromthebeliefthatreplacingmonopolisticstateswithcompetitiveprovidersisnecessaryfromanormative,justice-basedscenario.[86] Anarcho-capitalistsbelievethatthemarketvaluesofcompetitionandprivatizationcanbetterprovidetheservicesprovidedbythestate.MurrayRothbardarguesinPowerandMarketthatanyandallgovernmentfunctionscouldbetterbefulfilledbyprivateactorsincluding:defense,infrastructure,andlegaladjudication.[85] Marxistperspective[edit] Mainarticle:Marx'stheoryofthestate MarxandEngelswereclearinthatthecommunistgoalwasaclasslesssocietyinwhichthestatewouldhave"witheredaway",replacedonlyby"administrationofthings".[88]TheirviewsarefoundthroughouttheirCollectedWorks,andaddresspastorthenextantstateformsfromananalyticalandtacticalviewpoint,butnotfuturesocialforms,speculationaboutwhichisgenerallyantitheticaltogroupsconsideringthemselvesMarxistbutwho–nothavingconqueredtheexistingstatepower(s)–arenotinthesituationofsupplyingtheinstitutionalformofanactualsociety.Totheextentthatitmakessense,thereisnosingle"Marxisttheoryofstate",butratherseveraldifferentpurportedly"Marxist"theorieshavebeendevelopedbyadherentsofMarxism.[89][90][91] Marx'searlywritingsportrayedthebourgeoisstateasparasitic,builtuponthesuperstructureoftheeconomy,andworkingagainstthepublicinterest.Healsowrotethatthestatemirrorsclassrelationsinsocietyingeneral,actingasaregulatorandrepressorofclassstruggle,andasatoolofpoliticalpoweranddominationfortherulingclass.[92]TheCommunistManifestoclaimsthestatetobenothingmorethan"acommitteeformanagingthecommonaffairsofthebourgeoisie.”[89] ForMarxisttheorists,theroleofthemodernbourgeoisstateisdeterminedbyitsfunctionintheglobalcapitalistorder.RalphMilibandarguedthattherulingclassusesthestateasitsinstrumenttodominatesocietybyvirtueoftheinterpersonaltiesbetweenstateofficialsandeconomicelites.ForMiliband,thestateisdominatedbyanelitethatcomesfromthesamebackgroundasthecapitalistclass.Stateofficialsthereforesharethesameinterestsasownersofcapitalandarelinkedtothemthroughawidearrayofsocial,economic,andpoliticalties.[93] Gramsci'stheoriesofstateemphasizedthatthestateisonlyoneoftheinstitutionsinsocietythathelpsmaintainthehegemonyoftherulingclass,andthatstatepowerisbolsteredbytheideologicaldominationoftheinstitutionsofcivilsociety,suchaschurches,schools,andmassmedia.[94] Pluralism[edit] Seealso:Polyarchy Pluralistsviewsocietyasacollectionofindividualsandgroups,whoarecompetingforpoliticalpower.Theythenviewthestateasaneutralbodythatsimplyenactsthewillofwhichevergroupsdominatetheelectoralprocess.[95]Withinthepluralisttradition,RobertDahldevelopedthetheoryofthestateasaneutralarenaforcontendinginterestsoritsagenciesassimplyanothersetofinterestgroups.Withpowercompetitivelyarrangedinsociety,statepolicyisaproductofrecurrentbargaining.Althoughpluralismrecognizestheexistenceofinequality,itassertsthatallgroupshaveanopportunitytopressurethestate.Thepluralistapproachsuggeststhatthemoderndemocraticstate'sactionsaretheresultofpressuresappliedbyavarietyoforganizedinterests.Dahlcalledthiskindofstateapolyarchy.[96] Pluralismhasbeenchallengedonthegroundthatitisnotsupportedbyempiricalevidence.Citingsurveysshowingthatthelargemajorityofpeopleinhighleadershippositionsaremembersofthewealthyupperclass,criticsofpluralismclaimthatthestateservestheinterestsoftheupperclassratherthanequitablyservingtheinterestsofallsocialgroups.[97][98] Contemporarycriticalperspectives[edit] JürgenHabermasbelievedthatthebase-superstructureframework,usedbymanyMarxisttheoriststodescribetherelationbetweenthestateandtheeconomy,wasoverlysimplistic.Hefeltthatthemodernstateplaysalargeroleinstructuringtheeconomy,byregulatingeconomicactivityandbeingalarge-scaleeconomicconsumer/producer,andthroughitsredistributivewelfarestateactivities.Becauseofthewaytheseactivitiesstructuretheeconomicframework,Habermasfeltthatthestatecannotbelookedataspassivelyrespondingtoeconomicclassinterests.[99][100][101] MichelFoucaultbelievedthatmodernpoliticaltheorywastoostate-centric,saying"Maybe,afterall,thestateisnomorethanacompositerealityandamythologizedabstraction,whoseimportanceisalotmorelimitedthanmanyofusthink."Hethoughtthatpoliticaltheorywasfocusingtoomuchonabstractinstitutions,andnotenoughontheactualpracticesofgovernment.InFoucault'sopinion,thestatehadnoessence.Hebelievedthatinsteadoftryingtounderstandtheactivitiesofgovernmentsbyanalyzingthepropertiesofthestate(areifiedabstraction),politicaltheoristsshouldbeexaminingchangesinthepracticeofgovernmenttounderstandchangesinthenatureofthestate.[102][103][104]Foucaultdevelopedtheconceptofgovernmentalitywhileconsideringthegenealogyofstate,andconsidersthewayinwhichanindividualsunderstandingofgovernancecaninfluencethefunctionofthestate.[105]: 15  Foucaultarguesthatitistechnologythathascreatedandmadethestatesoelusiveandsuccessful,andthatinsteadoflookingatthestateassomethingtobetoppledweshouldlookatthestateastechnologicalmanifestationorsystemwithmanyheads;FoucaultarguesinsteadofsomethingtobeoverthrownasinthesenseoftheMarxistandAnarchistunderstandingofthestate.EverysinglescientifictechnologicaladvancehascometotheserviceofthestateFoucaultarguesanditiswiththeemergenceoftheMathematicalsciencesandessentiallytheformationofMathematicalstatisticsthatonegetsanunderstandingofthecomplextechnologyofproducinghowthemodernstatewassosuccessfullycreated.FoucaultinsiststhattheNationstatewasnotahistoricalaccidentbutadeliberateproductioninwhichthemodernstatehadtonowmanagecoincidentallywiththeemergingpracticeofthePolice(Cameralscience)'allowing'thepopulationtonow'comein'intojusgentiumandcivitas(Civilsociety)afterdeliberatelybeingexcludedforseveralmillennia.[106]Democracywasn't(thenewlyformedvotingfranchise)asisalwayspaintedbybothpoliticalrevolutionariesandpoliticalphilosophersasacryforpoliticalfreedomorwantingtobeacceptedbythe'rulingelite',Foucaultinsists,butwasapartofaskilledendeavourofswitchingovernewtechnologysuchas;Translatioimperii,PlenitudopotestatisandextraEcclesiamnullasalusreadilyavailablefromthepastMedievalperiod,intomasspersuasionforthefutureindustrial'political'population(deceptionoverthepopulation)inwhichthepoliticalpopulationwasnowaskedtoinsistuponitself"thepresidentmustbeelected".Wherethesepoliticalsymbolagents,representedbythepopeandthepresidentarenowdemocratised.FoucaultcallsthesenewformsoftechnologyBiopower[107][108][106]andformpartofourpoliticalinheritancewhichhecallsBiopolitics. HeavilyinfluencedbyGramsci,NicosPoulantzas,aGreekneo-Marxisttheoristarguedthatcapitaliststatesdonotalwaysactonbehalfoftherulingclass,andwhentheydo,itisnotnecessarilythecasebecausestateofficialsconsciouslystrivetodoso,butbecausethe'structural'positionofthestateisconfiguredinsuchawaytoensurethatthelong-terminterestsofcapitalarealwaysdominant.Poulantzas'maincontributiontotheMarxistliteratureonthestatewastheconceptof'relativeautonomy'ofthestate.WhilePoulantzas'workon'stateautonomy'hasservedtosharpenandspecifyagreatdealofMarxistliteratureonthestate,hisownframeworkcameundercriticismforits'structuralfunctionalism'.[citationneeded] Structuraluniverseofthestateorstructuralrealityofthestate[edit] Itcanbeconsideredasasinglestructuraluniverse:thehistoricalrealitythattakesshapeinsocietiescharacterizedbyacodifiedorcrystallizedright,withapowerorganizedhierarchicallyandjustifiedbythelawthatgivesitauthority,withawell-definedsocialandeconomicstratification,withaneconomicandsocialorganizationthatgivesthesocietypreciseorganiccharacteristics,withone(ormultiple)religiousorganizations,injustificationofthepowerexpressedbysuchasocietyandinsupportofthereligiousbeliefsofindividualsandacceptedbysocietyasawhole.Suchastructuraluniverse,evolvesinacyclicalmanner,presentingtwodifferenthistoricalphases(amercantilephase,or“opensociety”,andafeudalphaseor“closedsociety”),withcharacteristicssodivergentthatitcanqualifyastwodifferentlevelsofcivilizationwhich,however,areneverdefinitive,butthatalternatecyclically,beingable,eachofthetwodifferentlevels,tobeconsideredprogressive(inapartisanway,totallyindependentoftherealvalueofwell-being,degreesoffreedomgranted,equalityrealizedandaconcretepossibilitytoachievefurtherprogressofthelevelofcivilization),evenbythemostculturedfractions,educatedandintellectuallymoreequippedthanthevarioussocieties,ofbothhistoricalphases.[109] Stateautonomywithininstitutionalism[edit] Mainarticle:Newinstitutionalism Stateautonomytheoristsbelievethatthestateisanentitythatisimpervioustoexternalsocialandeconomicinfluence,andhasinterestsofitsown.[110] "Newinstitutionalist"writingsonthestate,suchastheworksofThedaSkocpol,suggestthatstateactorsaretoanimportantdegreeautonomous.Inotherwords,statepersonnelhaveinterestsoftheirown,whichtheycananddopursueindependentlyof(attimesinconflictwith)actorsinsociety.Sincethestatecontrolsthemeansofcoercion,andgiventhedependenceofmanygroupsincivilsocietyonthestateforachievinganygoalstheymayespouse,statepersonnelcantosomeextentimposetheirownpreferencesoncivilsociety.[111] Theoriesofstatelegitimacy[edit] Mainarticle:Legitimacy(political)Statesgenerallyrelyonaclaimtosomeformofpoliticallegitimacyinordertomaintaindominationovertheirsubjects.[112][113][114] SocialContractTheory[edit] Mainarticle:Socialcontract Varioussocialcontracttheorieshavebeenprofferedtoestablishstatelegitimacyandtoexplainstateformation.Commonelementsinthesetheoriesareastateofnaturethatincentivizespeopletoseekouttheestablishmentofastate.ThomasHobbesdescribedthestateofnatureas"solitary,poor,nasty,brutish,andshort"(Leviathan,ChaptersXIII–XIV).[115]Locketakesamorebenignviewofthestateofnatureandisunwillingtotakeashardastanceonthedegeneracyofthestateofnature.Hedoesagreethatitisequallyincapableofprovidingahighqualityoflife.Lockearguesforinalienablehumanrights.OneofthemostsignificantrightsforLockewastherighttoproperty.Hevieweditasakeystonerightthatwasinadequatelyprotectedinthestateofnature.[116][117]Socialcontracttheoristsfrequentlyargueforsomelevelofnaturalrights.Inordertoprotecttheirabilitytoexercisetheserights,theyarewillingtogiveupsomeotherrightstothestatetoallowittoestablishgovernance.[citationneeded]Socialcontracttheorythenbasisgovernmentlegitimacyontheconsentofthegoverned,butsuchlegitimacyonlyextendsasfarasthegovernedhaveconsented.ThislineofreasoningfiguresprominentlyinTheUnitedStatesDeclarationofIndependence. Divinerightofkings[edit] Mainarticle:Divinerightofkings Theriseofthemoderndaystatesystemwascloselyrelatedtochangesinpoliticalthought,especiallyconcerningthechangingunderstandingoflegitimatestatepowerandcontrol.Earlymoderndefendersofabsolutism(Absolutemonarchy),suchasThomasHobbesandJeanBodinunderminedthedoctrineofthedivinerightofkingsbyarguingthatthepowerofkingsshouldbejustifiedbyreferencetothepeople.Hobbesinparticularwentfurthertoarguethatpoliticalpowershouldbejustifiedwithreferencetotheindividual(HobbeswroteinthetimeoftheEnglishCivilWar),notjusttothepeopleunderstoodcollectively.BothHobbesandBodinthoughttheyweredefendingthepowerofkings,notadvocatingfordemocracy,buttheirargumentsaboutthenatureofsovereigntywerefiercelyresistedbymoretraditionaldefendersofthepowerofkings,suchasSirRobertFilmerinEngland,whothoughtthatsuchdefensesultimatelyopenedthewaytomoredemocraticclaims.[citationneeded] Rational-legalauthority[edit] Mainarticle:Rational-legalauthority MaxWeberidentifiedthreemainsourcesofpoliticallegitimacyinhisworks.Thefirst,legitimacybasedontraditionalgroundsisderivedfromabeliefthatthingsshouldbeastheyhavebeeninthepast,andthatthosewhodefendthesetraditionshavealegitimateclaimtopower.Thesecond,legitimacybasedoncharismaticleadership,isdevotiontoaleaderorgroupthatisviewedasexceptionallyheroicorvirtuous.Thethirdisrational-legalauthority,wherebylegitimacyisderivedfromthebeliefthatacertaingrouphasbeenplacedinpowerinalegalmanner,andthattheiractionsarejustifiableaccordingtoaspecificcodeofwrittenlaws.Weberbelievedthatthemodernstateischaracterizedprimarilybyappealstorational-legalauthority.[118][119][120] Statefailure[edit] Mainarticle:Failedstate Somestatesareoftenlabeledas"weak"or"failed".InDavidSamuels'swords"...afailedstateoccurswhensovereigntyoverclaimedterritoryhascollapsedorwasnevereffectivelyatall".[121]AuthorslikeSamuelsandJoelS.Migdalhaveexploredtheemergenceofweakstates,howtheyaredifferentfromWestern"strong"statesanditsconsequencestotheeconomicdevelopmentofdevelopingcountries. Earlystateformation Tounderstandtheformationofweakstates,SamuelscomparestheformationofEuropeanstatesinthe1600swiththeconditionsunderwhichmorerecentstateswereformedinthetwentiethcentury.Inthislineofargument,thestateallowsapopulationtoresolveacollectiveactionproblem,inwhichcitizensrecognizetheauthorityofthestateandthisexercisethepowerofcoercionoverthem.Thiskindofsocialorganizationrequiredadeclineinlegitimacyoftraditionalformsofruling(likereligiousauthorities)andreplacedthemwithanincreaseinthelegitimacyofdepersonalizedrule;anincreaseinthecentralgovernment'ssovereignty;andanincreaseintheorganizationalcomplexityofthecentralgovernment(bureaucracy). ThetransitiontothismodernstatewaspossibleinEuropearound1600thankstotheconfluenceoffactorslikethetechnologicaldevelopmentsinwarfare,whichgeneratedstrongincentivestotaxandconsolidatecentralstructuresofgovernancetorespondtoexternalthreats.Thiswascomplementedbytheincreaseoftheproductionoffood(asaresultofproductivityimprovements),whichallowedtosustainalargerpopulationandsoincreasedthecomplexityandcentralizationofstates.Finally,culturalchangeschallengedtheauthorityofmonarchiesandpavedthewaytotheemergenceofmodernstates.[122] Latestateformation TheconditionsthatenabledtheemergenceofmodernstatesinEuropeweredifferentforothercountriesthatstartedthisprocesslater.Asaresult,manyofthesestateslackeffectivecapabilitiestotaxandextractrevenuefromtheircitizens,whichderivesinproblemslikecorruption,taxevasionandloweconomicgrowth.UnliketheEuropeancase,latestateformationoccurredinacontextoflimitedinternationalconflictthatdiminishedtheincentivestotaxandincreasemilitaryspending.Also,manyofthesestatesemergedfromcolonizationinastateofpovertyandwithinstitutionsdesignedtoextractnaturalresources,whichhavemademoredifficulttoformstates.Europeancolonizationalsodefinedmanyarbitrarybordersthatmixeddifferentculturalgroupsunderthesamenationalidentities,whichhasmadedifficulttobuildstateswithlegitimacyamongallthepopulation,sincesomestateshavetocompeteforitwithotherformsofpoliticalidentity.[122] Asacomplementofthisargument,MigdalgivesahistoricalaccountonhowsuddensocialchangesintheThirdWorldduringtheIndustrialRevolutioncontributedtotheformationofweakstates.Theexpansionofinternationaltradethatstartedaround1850,broughtprofoundchangesinAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmericathatwereintroducedwiththeobjectiveofassuretheavailabilityofrawmaterialsfortheEuropeanmarket.Thesechangesconsistedin:i)reformstolandownershiplawswiththeobjectiveofintegratemorelandstotheinternationaleconomy,ii)increaseinthetaxationofpeasantsandlittlelandowners,aswellascollectingofthesetaxesincashinsteadofinkindaswasusualuptothatmomentandiii)theintroductionofnewandlesscostlymodesoftransportation,mainlyrailroads.Asaresult,thetraditionalformsofsocialcontrolbecameobsolete,deterioratingtheexistinginstitutionsandopeningthewaytothecreationofnewones,thatnotnecessarilyleadthesecountriestobuildstrongstates.[123]Thisfragmentationofthesocialorderinducedapoliticallogicinwhichthesestateswerecapturedtosomeextentby"strongmen",whowerecapabletotakeadvantageoftheabove-mentionedchangesandthatchallengethesovereigntyofthestate.Asaresult,thesedecentralizationofsocialcontrolimpedestoconsolidatestrongstates.[124] Seealso[edit] Civiliancontrolofthemilitary Colony Internationalrelations Puppetstate Ruleoflaw Statism Warlordism References[edit] Notes[edit] ^abCudworthetal.,2007:p.1 ^abBarrow,1993:pp.9–10 ^abCudworthetal.,2007:p.95 ^abSalmon,2008:p.54Archived15May2016attheWaybackMachine ^"StatelessSociety|Encyclopedia.com".www.encyclopedia.com. ^Wimmer,Andreas;Feinstein,Yuval(2010)."TheRiseoftheNation-StateacrosstheWorld,1816to2001".AmericanSociologicalReview.75(5):764–790.doi:10.1177/0003122410382639.ISSN 0003-1224.S2CID 10075481.Thisglobaloutcome—thealmostuniversaladoptionofthenation-stateform ^Skinner,1989:[page needed] ^Bobbio,1989:pp.57–58Archived30April2016attheWaybackMachine ^C.D.Erhard,BetrachtungenüberLeopoldsdesWeisenGesetzgebunginToscana,Richter,1791,p.30Archived19January2018attheWaybackMachine. 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^Jones,Rhys(2007).People/states/territories:thepoliticalgeographiesofBritishstatetransformation.Wiley-Blackwell.pp. 52–53.ISBN 978-1-4051-4033-1.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2May2016....seealsopp.54-Archived16May2016attheWaybackMachinewhereJonesdiscussesproblemswithcommonconceptionsoffeudalism. ^Poggi,G.1978.TheDevelopmentoftheModernState:ASociologicalIntroduction.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress. ^Breuilly,John.1993.NationalismandtheStateArchived1May2016attheWaybackMachine.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.ISBN 0-7190-3800-6. ^Tilly,Charles(1990).Coercion,Capital,andEuropeanStates,AD990–1992.Blackwell.p. 44. ^Abramson,ScottF.(2017)."TheEconomicOriginsoftheTerritorialState".InternationalOrganization.71(1):97–130.doi:10.1017/S0020818316000308.ISSN 0020-8183. ^abcdSpruyt,Hendrik(2002)."TheOrigins,Development,andPossibleDeclineoftheModernState".AnnualReviewofPoliticalScience.5(1):127–149.doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.5.101501.145837.ISSN 1094-2939. ^Thomas,GeorgeM.;Meyer,JohnW.(1984)."TheExpansionoftheState".AnnualReviewofSociology.10(1):461–482.doi:10.1146/annurev.so.10.080184.002333.ISSN 0360-0572. ^Getachew,Adom(2019).WorldmakingafterEmpire:TheRiseandFallofSelf-Determination.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. 73–74.ISBN 978-0-691-17915-5.JSTOR j.ctv3znwvg. ^abGorski,Philip;Sharma,VivekSwaroop(2017),Strandsbjerg,Jeppe;Kaspersen,LarsBo(eds.),"BeyondtheTillyThesis:"FamilyValues"andStateFormationinLatinChristendom",DoesWarMakeStates?:InvestigationsofCharlesTilly'sHistoricalSociology,CambridgeUniversityPress,pp. 98–124,ISBN 978-1-107-14150-6 ^Newman,Saul(2010).ThePoliticsofPostanarchism.EdinburghUniversityPress.p. 109.ISBN 978-0-7486-3495-8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon29July2016. ^Roussopoulos,DimitriosI.(1973).Thepoliticaleconomyofthestate:Québec,Canada,U.S.A.BlackRoseBooks.p. 8.ISBN 978-0-919618-01-5.Archivedfromtheoriginalon13May2016. ^Christoyannopoulos,Alexandre(2010).ChristianAnarchism:APoliticalCommentaryontheGospel.Exeter:ImprintAcademic.pp. 123–126.Revelation ^Ellul,Jacques(1988).AnarchyandChristianity.Michigan:Wm.B.Eerdmans.pp. 71–74.ISBN 9780802804952.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2November2015.Thefirstbeastcomesupfromthesea...Itisgiven'allauthorityandpowerovereverytribe,everypeople,everytongue,andeverynation'(13:7).Allwhodwellonearthworshipit.Politicalpowercouldhardly,Ithink,bemoreexpresslydescribed,foritisthispowerwhichhasauthority,whichcontrolsmilitaryforce,andwhichcompelsadoration(i.e.,absoluteobedience). ^abcRothbard,Murray(1970).PowerandMarket.InstituteforHumaneStudies.ISBN 1-933550-05-8. ^abLong,RoderickT.(2013)."AnarchismandtheProblemsofRandandPaterson:AnarchismandtheProblemsofRandandPaterson".TheJournalofAynRandStudies.13(2):210–223.doi:10.5325/jaynrandstud.13.2.0210.ISSN 1526-1018.JSTOR 10.5325/jaynrandstud.13.2.0210. ^Block,Walter(2005)."AynRandandAustrianEconomics:TwoPeasinaPod".TheJournalofAynRandStudies.6(2):259–269.ISSN 1526-1018.JSTOR 41560283. ^FrederickEngels–Socialism:UtopianandScientific.1880Archived6February2007attheWaybackMachineFullText.FromHistoricalMaterialism:"Stateinterferenceinsocialrelationsbecomes,inonedomainafteranother,superfluous,andthendiesoutofitself;thegovernmentofpersonsisreplacedbytheadministrationofthings,andbytheconductofprocessesofproduction.TheStateisnot"abolished".Itdiesout...Socializedproductionuponapredeterminedplanbecomeshenceforthpossible.Thedevelopmentofproductionmakestheexistenceofdifferentclassesofsocietythenceforthananachronism.Inproportionasanarchyinsocialproductionvanishes,thepoliticalauthorityoftheStatediesout.Man,atlastthemasterofhisownformofsocialorganization,becomesatthesametimethelordoverNature,hisownmaster –free." ^abFlint&Taylor,2007:p.139 ^Joseph,2004:p.15Archived6May2016attheWaybackMachine ^Barrow,1993:p.4 ^Smith,MarkJ.(2000).Rethinkingstatetheory.PsychologyPress.p. 176.ISBN 978-0-415-20892-5.Archivedfromtheoriginalon3May2016. ^Miliband,Ralph.1983.Classpowerandstatepower.London:Verso. ^Joseph,2004:p.44Archived29July2016attheWaybackMachine ^Vincent,1992:pp.47–48Archived30April2016attheWaybackMachine ^Dahl,Robert(1973).ModernPoliticalAnalysis.PrenticeHall.p. [page needed].ISBN 0-13-596981-6. ^Cunningham,Frank(2002).Theoriesofdemocracy:acriticalintroduction.PsychologyPress.pp. 86–87.ISBN 978-0-415-22879-4.Archivedfromtheoriginalon12May2016. ^Zweigenhaft,RichardL.&Domhoff,G.William(2006).Diversityinthepowerelite:howithappened,whyitmatters(2nd ed.).Rowman&Littlefield.p. 4.ISBN 978-0-7425-3699-9.Archivedfromtheoriginalon30April2016. ^Duncan,GraemeCampbell(1989).Democracyandthecapitaliststate.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 137.ISBN 978-0-521-28062-4.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25April2016. ^Edgar,Andrew(2005).ThephilosophyofHabermas.McGill-Queen'sPress.pp. 5–6,44.ISBN 978-0-7735-2783-6. ^Cook,Deborah(2004).Adorno,Habermas,andthesearchforarationalsociety.PsychologyPress.p. 20.ISBN 978-0-415-33479-2.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25April2016. ^Melossi,Dario(2006)."MichelFoucaultandtheObsolescentState".InBeaulieu,Alain;Gabbard,David(eds.).MichelFoucaultandpowertoday:internationalmultidisciplinarystudiesinthehistoryofthepresent.LexingtonBooks.p. 6.ISBN 978-0-7391-1324-0.Archivedfromtheoriginalon16May2016. ^Gordon,Colin(1991)."Governmentrationality:anintroduction".InFoucault,Michel;et al.(eds.).TheFoucaulteffect:studiesingovernmentality.UniversityofChicagoPress.p. 4.ISBN 978-0-226-08045-1.Archivedfromtheoriginalon3May2016. ^Mitchell,Timothy(2006)."Society,Economy,andtheStateEffect".InSharma,Aradhana;Gupta,Akhil(eds.).Theanthropologyofthestate:areader.Wiley-Blackwell.p. 179.ISBN 978-1-4051-1467-7.Archivedfromtheoriginalon18May2016. ^Lemke,Thomas(2011).Foucault,governmentality,andcritique.Boulder,Colo.:ParadigmPublishers.ISBN 978-1-59451-637-5.OCLC 653123044. ^abMichel,Foucault(2007).Security,Territory,Population.pp. 311–332. ^Michel,Foucault(2007).Security,Territory,Population.pp. 1–27. ^Michel,Foucault(2007).Security,Territory,Population.pp. 87–115115–135. ^GianoRocca“TheFacesofBelial–TheScientificMethodAppliedtoHumanCondition–BookV”(2020)https://independent.academia.edu/GianoRocca ^Sklair,Leslie(2004)."Globalizingclasstheory".InSinclair,Timothy(ed.).Globalgovernance:criticalconceptsinpoliticalscience.Taylor&Francis.pp. 139–140.ISBN 978-0-415-27665-8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon19May2016. ^Rueschemeyer,Skocpol,andEvans,1985:[page needed] ^Vincent,1992:p.43Archived24June2016attheWaybackMachine ^Malešević,2002:p.85Archived20May2016attheWaybackMachine ^Dogan,1992:pp.119–120Archived17June2016attheWaybackMachine ^"Leviathan,byThomasHobbes".www.gutenberg.org.Retrieved19November2020. ^Locke,John(1690).SecondTreatiseofGovernment. ^Cox,Stephen(2013)."Rand,Paterson,andtheProblemofAnarchism".TheJournalofAynRandStudies.13(1):3–25.doi:10.5325/jaynrandstud.13.1.0003.ISSN 1526-1018.JSTOR 10.5325/jaynrandstud.13.1.0003. ^Wallerstein,Immanuel(1999).Theendoftheworldasweknowit:socialscienceforthetwenty-firstcentury.UniversityofMinnesotaPress.p. 228.ISBN 978-0-8166-3398-2.Archivedfromtheoriginalon28May2016. ^Collins,Randall(1986).WeberianSociologicalTheory.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 158.ISBN 978-0-521-31426-8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon3June2016. ^Swedberg,Richard&Agevall,Ola(2005).TheMaxWeberdictionary:keywordsandcentralconcepts.StanfordUniversityPress.p. 148.ISBN 978-0-8047-5095-0.Archivedfromtheoriginalon28April2016. ^Samuels,David(2012).ComparativePolitics.PearsonHigherEducation.p. 29. ^abSamuels,David.ComparativePolitics.PearsonHigherEducation. ^Migdal,Joel(1988).Strongsocietiesandweakstates:state-societyrelationsandstatecapabilitiesintheThirdWorld.pp. Chapter2. ^Migdal,Joel(1988).Strongsocietiesandweakstates:state-societyrelationsandstatecapabilitiesintheThirdWorld.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. Chapter8. Bibliography[edit] Barrow,ClydeW.(1993).CriticalTheoriesofState:Marxist,Neo-Marxist,Post-Marxist.UniversityofWisconsinPress.ISBN 0-299-13714-7. Bobbio,Norberto(1989).DemocracyandDictatorship:TheNatureandLimitsofStatePower.UniversityofMinnesotaPress.ISBN 0-8166-1813-5. Cudworth,Erika(2007).TheModernState:TheoriesandIdeologies.EdinburghUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-7486-2176-7. Dogan,Mattei(1992)."ConceptionsofLegitimacy".InPaynter,John;et al.(eds.).Encyclopediaofgovernmentandpolitics.PsychologyPress.ISBN 978-0-415-07224-3. Flint,Colin&Taylor,Peter(2007).PoliticalGeography:WorldEconomy,Nation-State,andLocality(5th ed.).Pearson/PrenticeHall.ISBN 978-0-13-196012-1. Hay,Colin(2001)."Statetheory".InJones,R.J.Barry(ed.).RoutledgeEncyclopediaofInternationalPoliticalEconomy:EntriesP-Z.Taylor&Francis.pp. 1469–1475.ISBN 978-0-415-24352-0. Joseph,Jonathan(2004).Socialtheory:anintroduction.NYUPress.ISBN 978-0-8147-4277-8. Malešević,Siniša(2002).Ideology,legitimacyandthenewstate:Yugoslavia,SerbiaandCroatia.Routledge.ISBN 978-0-7146-5215-3. Nelson,BrianT.(2006).Themakingofthemodernstate:atheoreticalevolution.PalgraveMacmillan.ISBN 978-1-4039-7189-0. Rueschemeyer,Dietrich;Skocpol,Theda;Evans,PeterB.(1985).BringingtheStateBackIn.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-31313-9. Salmon,TrevorC.(2008).Issuesininternationalrelations.Taylor&FrancisUS.ISBN 978-0-415-43126-2. Sartwell,Crispin(2008).Againstthestate:anintroductiontoanarchistpoliticaltheory.SUNYPress.ISBN 978-0-7914-7447-1. Scott,JamesC.(2009).Theartofnotbeinggoverned:ananarchisthistoryofuplandSoutheastAsia.YaleUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-300-15228-9. Skinner,Quentin(1989)."Thestate".InBall,T;Farr,J.;Hanson,R.L.(eds.).PoliticalInnovationandConceptualChange.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 90–131.ISBN 0-521-35978-3. Vincent,Andrew(1992)."ConceptionsoftheState".InPaynter,John;et al.(eds.).Encyclopediaofgovernmentandpolitics.PsychologyPress.ISBN 978-0-415-07224-3. Furtherreading[edit] Barrow,ClydeW.(2002)."TheMiliband-PoulantzasDebate:AnIntellectualHistory".InAronowitz,Stanley;Bratsis,Peter(eds.).Paradigmlost:statetheoryreconsidered.UniversityofMinnesotaPress.ISBN 978-0-8166-3293-0. Bottomore,T.B.,ed.(1991)."TheState".ADictionaryofMarxistthought(2nd ed.).Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1. Bratsis,Peter(2006).EverydayLifeandtheState.Paradigm.ISBN 978-1-59451-219-3. Faulks,Keith(2000)."ClassicalTheoriesoftheStateandCivilSociety".Politicalsociology:acriticalintroduction.NYUPress.ISBN 978-0-8147-2709-6. Feldbrugge,FerdinandJ.M.,ed.(2003).Thelaw'sbeginning.MartinusNijhoffPublishers.ISBN 978-90-04-13705-9. Fisk,Milton(1989).Thestateandjustice:anessayinpoliticaltheory.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-38966-2. Friedeburg,Robertvon(2011).StateFormsandStateSystemsinModernEurope.InstituteofEuropeanHistory. Green,Penny&Ward,Tony(2009)."ViolenceandtheState".InColeman,Roy;et al.(eds.).State,Power,Crime.Sage.p. 116.ISBN 978-1-4129-4805-0. Hall,JohnA.,ed.(1994).Thestate:criticalconcepts(Vol.1&2).Taylor&Francis.ISBN 978-0-415-08683-7. Hansen,ThomasBlom;Stepputat,Finn,eds.(2001).Statesofimagination:ethnographicexplorationsofthepostcolonialstate.DukeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-8223-2798-1. Hoffman,John(1995).Beyondthestate:anintroductorycritique.PolityPress.ISBN 978-0-7456-1181-5. Hoffman,John(2004).Citizenshipbeyondthestate.Sage.ISBN 978-0-7619-4942-8. Jessop,Bob(1990).Statetheory:puttingtheCapitaliststateinitsplace.PennStatePress.ISBN 978-0-271-00735-9. Jessop,Bob(2009)."RedesigningtheState,ReorientingStatePower,andRethinkingtheState".InLeicht,KevinT.;Jenkins,J.Craig(eds.).HandbookofPolitics:StateandSocietyinGlobalPerspective.Springer.ISBN 978-0-387-68929-6. Lefebvre,Henri(2009).Brenner,Neil;Elden,Stuart(eds.).State,space,world:selectedessays.UniversityofMinnesotaPress.ISBN 978-0-8166-5317-1. Long,RoderickT.&Machan,TiborR.(2008).Anarchism/minarchism:isagovernmentpartofafreecountry?.AshgatePublishing.ISBN 978-0-7546-6066-8. Mann,Michael(1994)."TheAutonomousPoweroftheState:ItsOrigins,Mechanisms,andResults".InHall,JohnA.(ed.).TheState:criticalconcepts,Volume1.Taylor&Francis.ISBN 978-0-415-08680-6. Oppenheimer,Franz(1975).Thestate.BlackRoseBooks.ISBN 978-0-919618-59-6. Poulantzas,Nicos&Camiller,Patrick(2000).State,power,socialism.Verso.ISBN 978-1-85984-274-4. Sanders,JohnT.&Narveson,Jan(1996).Forandagainstthestate:newphilosophicalreadings.Rowman&Littlefield.ISBN 978-0-8476-8165-5. Scott,JamesC.(1998).Seeinglikeastate:howcertainschemestoimprovethehumanconditionhavefailed.YaleUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-300-07815-2. Taylor,Michael(1982).Community,anarchy,andliberty.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-27014-4. Zippelius,Reinhold(2010).AllgemeineStaatslehre,Politikwissenschaft(16th ed.).C.H.Beck,Munich.ISBN 978-3406603426. Uzgalis,William(5May2007)."JohnLocke".StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. Externallinks[edit] Lookupstate,estate,orstatusinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. QuotationsrelatedtoStateatWikiquote vteTypesofstate Chiefdom City-state Clientstate Confederation Duchy Earldom Empire Federation Khanate Kingdom Marquessate Principality Republic Viscountcy AuthoritycontrolGeneral IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) Nationallibraries France(data) Ukraine UnitedStates Japan CzechRepublic Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=State_(polity)&oldid=1062954421" Categories:PoliticalgeographyPoliticalscienceterminologyTypesofadministrativedivisionHiddencategories:WebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksWikipediaarticlesneedingpagenumbercitationsfromJanuary2011CS1:longvolumevalueArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataUsedmydatesfromFebruary2020AllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromOctober2021ArticlescontainingFrench-languagetextArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJanuary2012ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJanuary2011ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromSeptember2009ArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithBNFidentifiersArticleswithEMUidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNDLidentifiersArticleswithNKCidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikiquote Languages АдыгэбзэAfrikaansAlemannischአማርኛAnarâškielâالعربيةAragonésܐܪܡܝܐArmãneashtiAsturianuAvañe'ẽАварAzərbaycancaتۆرکجهবাংলাBân-lâm-gúBasaBanyumasanБашҡортсаБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)БългарскиBoarischBosanskiBrezhonegБуряадCatalàЧӑвашлаCebuanoČeštinaCorsuCymraegDanskDeutschDolnoserbskiEestiΕλληνικάЭрзяньEspañolEsperantoEstremeñuEuskaraفارسیFijiHindiFrançaisFryskFulfuldeFurlanGaeilgeGalegoГӀалгӀай한국어HawaiʻiՀայերենहिन्दीHornjoserbsceHrvatskiIdoIlokanoBahasaIndonesiaInterlinguaИронÍslenskaItalianoעבריתJawaKabɩyɛಕನ್ನಡКъарачай-малкъарქართულიKaszëbscziҚазақшаKernowekKiswahiliКомиKreyòlayisyenKriyòlgwiyannenKurdîКыргызчаLadinລາວLatinaLatviešuLëtzebuergeschLietuviųLigureLimburgsLingálaLombardMagyarМакедонскиമലയാളംमराठीმარგალურიمصرىBahasaMelayuMirandésМокшеньМонголNederlandsNedersaksiesनेपालभाषा日本語NapulitanoНохчийнNordfriiskNorskbokmålNorsknynorskNouormandOccitanОлыкмарийOʻzbekcha/ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀPälzischپنجابیپښتوПеремкомиភាសាខ្មែរPiemontèisTokPisinPlattdüütschPolskiΠοντιακάPortuguêsRomânăRomaničhibRumantschRunaSimiРусиньскыйРусскийСахатылаScotsShqipSicilianuසිංහලSimpleEnglishسنڌيSlovenčinaSlovenščinaŚlůnskiSoomaaligaکوردیСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSundaSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்TaqbaylitТатарча/tatarçaไทยТоҷикӣᏣᎳᎩTürkçeУдмуртУкраїнськаاردوVènetoVepsänkel’TiếngViệtVõro文言WinarayWolof吴语Xitsongaייִדיש粵語ZazakiZeêuwsŽemaitėška中文 Editlinks