Qing dynasty - Wikipedia

The Qing dynasty, officially the Great Qing was the last dynasty in the imperial history of China. It was established in 1636 in Manchuria (modern-day ... Qingdynasty FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Chinesedynastyfrom1636to1912andin1917 "Qing"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeQing(disambiguation). NottobeconfusedwiththeQindynasty,thefirstdynastyofImperialChina. Thisarticlemaybetoolongtoreadandnavigatecomfortably.Thereadableprosesizeis116kilobytes.Pleaseconsidersplittingcontentintosub-articles,condensingit,oraddingsubheadings.Pleasediscussthisissueonthearticle'stalkpage.(February2021) GreatQing大清DàQīngᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ1636–1912 Flag(1889–1912)Anthem: 鞏金甌GǒngJīn'ōu"CupofSolidGold"(1911–1912)Imperialseal大清帝國之璽(1909–1912)LandcontrolledbytheQingdynastyin1890shownindarkgreen.CapitalMukden(Shenyang)(1636–1644)[a]Peking(Beijing)(1644–1912)[b]LargestcityPekingOfficial languagesMandarin,Manchu,Mongolian,Tibetan,Chagatai,[1]numerousregionallanguagesandvarietiesofChineseReligionMajority:Confucianism(stateideology),[2]Minority:TibetanBuddhism,Heavenworship,Chinesefolkreligion,Taoism,Islam,Shamanism,Christianity,othersGovernmentAbsolutemonarchyEmperor • 1636–1643HongTaiji(founder)• 1643–1661ShunzhiEmperor(firstinBeijing)• 1908–1912XuantongEmperor(last) Regent • 1643–1650Dorgon,PrinceRui• 1908–1911Zaifeng,PrinceChun PrimeMinister • 1911Yikuang,PrinceQing• 1911–1912YuanShikai LegislatureNone(rulebydecree)(1636-1910)AdvisoryCouncil(1910-1912)HistoricaleraLatemodern• LaterJīnrule1616–1636• Established1636• ConquestoftheShundynastyandSouthernMing1644–1662• IncorporatedDzungar1687–1757• OpiumWars1839–1842(first)1856–1860(second)• Sino-FrenchWar1884–1885• FirstSino-JapaneseWar1894–1895• InvasionofEight-NationAlliance1900–1901• XinhaiRevolution10October1911–12February1912• AbdicationoftheXuantongEmperor12February1912 Area1700[3]8,800,000 km2(3,400,000 sq mi)1790[3]14,700,000 km2(5,700,000 sq mi)1860[3]13,400,000 km2(5,200,000 sq mi)CurrencyCash(wén)Tael(liǎng)Papermoney Precededby Succeededby LaterJīn Shundynasty SouthernMing DzungarKhanate RepublicofChina ThisarticlecontainsManchutext.Withoutproperrenderingsupport,youmayseequestionmarks,boxes,orothersymbolsinsteadofManchualphabet. QingdynastyChinesenameChinese清朝TranscriptionsStandardMandarinHanyuPinyinQīngcháoWade–GilesCh'ing1ch'ao2IPA[tɕʰíŋ ʈʂʰǎu]WuSuzhouneseTshinzáuYue:CantoneseYaleRomanizationChing1Chiu4JyutpingCing1ciu4IPA[tsʰéŋ tsʰȉːu]SouthernMinHokkienPOJChhengtiâuTâi-lôTshingtiâuDynasticnameChinese大清TranscriptionsStandardMandarinHanyuPinyinDàQīngWade–GilesTa4Ch'ing1Yue:CantoneseYaleRomanizationDaai6Ching1Jyutpingdaai6cing1IPA[tàːi tsʰéŋ]SouthernMinHokkienPOJTāi-chhengTâi-lôTāi-tshingMongoliannameMongolianCyrillicДайчинУлсMongolianscriptᠳᠠᠢᠢᠴᠢᠩᠤᠯᠤᠰTranscriptionsSASM/GNCDaiqingulusManchunameManchuscriptᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨAbkaiDaiqinggurunMöllendorffDaicinggurun HistoryofChina ANCIENT Neolithicc.8500–c.2070BCE Xiac.2070–c.1600BCE Shangc.1600–c.1046BCE Zhouc.1046–256BCE  WesternZhou  EasternZhou    SpringandAutumn    WarringStates IMPERIAL Qin221–207BCE Han202BCE–220CE  WesternHan  Xin  EasternHan ThreeKingdoms220–280  Wei,ShuandWu Jin266–420  WesternJin  EasternJin SixteenKingdoms NorthernandSoutherndynasties420–589 Sui581–618 Tang618–907 FiveDynastiesandTenKingdoms907–979 Liao916–1125 Song960–1279  NorthernSong W.Xia  SouthernSong Jin W.Liao Yuan1271–1368 Ming1368–1644 Qing1636–1912 MODERN RepublicofChinaonthemainland1912–1949 People'sRepublicofChina1949–present RepublicofChinainTaiwan1949–present Relatedarticles Chinesehistoriography TimelineofChinesehistory DynastiesinChinesehistory Linguistichistory Arthistory Economichistory Educationhistory Scienceandtechnologyhistory Legalhistory Mediahistory Militaryhistory Navalhistory WomeninancientandimperialChina viewtalkedit TheQingdynasty,officiallytheGreatQing([tɕʰíŋ]),wasthelastdynastyintheimperialhistoryofChina.Itwasestablishedin1636inManchuria(modern-dayNortheastChina),andin1644itsruleextendedintoChinaproperandlasteduntil1912.In1917,itwasbrieflyrestoredinanepisodeknownastheManchuRestoration,albeitlackingininternationalrecognition.InorthodoxChinesehistoriography,theQingdynastywasprecededbytheMingdynastyandsucceededbytheRepublicofChina.ThemultiethnicQingempirelastedforalmostthreecenturiesandassembledtheterritorialbaseformodernChina.ItwasthelargestChinesedynastyandin1790thefourthlargestempireinworldhistoryintermsofterritorialsize.Withapopulationof432millionin1912,itwastheworld'smostpopulouscountryatthetime. Inthelatesixteenthcentury,Nurhaci,leaderoftheHouseofAisin-Gioro,beganorganizing"Banners"whichweremilitary-socialunitsthatincludedManchu,Han,andMongolelements.NurhaciunitedclanstocreateaManchuethnicidentityandofficiallyproclaimedtheLaterJindynastyin1616.HissonHongTaijideclaredtheQingdynastyin1636.AsMingcontroldisintegrated,peasantrebelsconqueredBeijingin1644,buttheMinggeneralWuSanguiopenedtheShanhaiPasstothearmiesoftheregentPrinceDorgon,whodefeatedtherebels,seizedthecapital,andtookoverthegovernment.ResistancefromtheMingloyalistsinthesouthandtheRevoltoftheThreeFeudatoriesdelayedthecompleteconquestuntil1683.TheKangxiEmperor(1661–1722)consolidatedcontrol,maintainedtheManchuidentity,patronizedTibetanBuddhism,andrelishedtheroleofConfucianruler.HanofficialsworkedunderorinparallelwithManchuofficials.ThedynastyalsoadaptedtheidealsofthetributarysysteminassertingsuperiorityoverperipheralcountriessuchasKoreaandVietnam,whileextendingcontroloverTibetandMongolia. TheheightofQinggloryandpowerwasreachedinthereignoftheQianlongEmperor(1735-1796).HeledTenGreatCampaignsthatextendedQingcontrolintoInnerAsiaandpersonallysupervisedConfucianculturalprojects.Afterhisdeath,thedynastyfacedchangesintheworldsystem, foreigninstrusion,internalrevolts,populationgrowth,economicdisruption,officialcorruption,andthereluctanceofConfucianelitestochangetheirmindsets.Withpeaceandprosperity,thepopulationrosetosome400 million,buttaxesandgovernmentrevenueswerefixedatalowrate,soonleadingtofiscalcrisis.FollowingChina'sdefeatintheOpiumWars,EuropeanpowersledbyGreatBritainimposed"unequaltreaties",tradingprivileges,extraterritorialityandtreatyportsunderforeigncontrol.TheTaipingRebellion(1850–1864)andtheDunganRevolt(1862–1877)inCentralAsialedtothedeathofover20 millionpeople,fromfamine,disease,andwar.TheTongzhiRestorationofthe1860sbroughtvigorousreformsandtheintroductionofforeignmilitarytechnologyintheSelf-StrengtheningMovement.DefeatintheFirstSino-JapaneseWarof1895,ledtolossofsuzeraintyoverKoreaandcessionofTaiwantoJapan.TheambitiousHundredDays'Reformof1898proposedfundamentalchange,buttheEmpressDowagerCixi(1835–1908),whohadbeenthedominantvoiceinthenationalgovernmentformorethanthreedecades,turneditbackinacoup. In1900anti-foreign"Boxers"killedmanyChineseChristiansandforeignmissionaries;inretaliation,theforeignpowersinvadedChinaandimposedapunitiveBoxerIndemnity.Inresponse,thegovernmentinitiatedunprecedentedfiscalandadministrativereforms,includingelections,anewlegalcode,andabolitionoftheexaminationsystem.SunYat-senandrevolutionariesdebatedreformofficialsandconstitutionalmonarchistssuchasKangYouweiandLiangQichaooverhowtotransformtheManchuEmpireintoamodernHanChinesenation.AfterthedeathsoftheGuangxuEmperorandCixiin1908,Manchuconservativesatcourtblockedreformsandalienatedreformersandlocalelitesalike.TheWuchangUprisingon10October1911ledtotheXinhaiRevolution.TheabdicationofPuyi,thelastemperor,on12February1912,broughtthedynastytoanend. Contents 1Names 2History 2.1FormationoftheManchustate 2.1.1Nurhaci 2.1.2HongTaiji 2.2ClaimingtheMandateofHeaven 2.3KangxiEmperor'sreignandconsolidation 2.4ReignsoftheYongzhengandQianlongemperors 2.5Rebellion,unrestandexternalpressure 2.6Self-strengtheningandthefrustrationofreforms 2.7Reform,revolution,collapse 3Government 3.1Centralgovernmentagencies 3.2Administrativedivisions 3.3Territorialadministration 4Society 4.1Populationgrowthandmobility 4.2Statusesinsociety 4.2.1Qinggentry 4.2.2Qingnobility 4.3Familyandkinship 4.4Religion 4.4.1Manchuandimperialreligion 4.4.2Christianity,Judaism,andIslam 5Economy 5.1Silver 5.2Urbanizationandtheproliferationofmarket-towns 5.3TradewiththeWest 6Scienceandtechnology 7Artsandculture 7.1Finearts 7.2Traditionallearningandliterature 7.3Cuisine 8Historiographyandmemory 8.1Nationalism 8.2NewQingHistory 9Seealso 10Notes 11References 11.1Citations 11.2Sources 12Furtherreading 12.1Primarysourcecollectionsandreference 12.2Historiography 13Externallinks Names Mainarticle:NamesoftheQingdynasty Seealso:NamesofChinaHongTaijinamedtheGreatQingdynastyin1636.[4]TherearecompetingexplanationsonthemeaningofQīng(lit."clear"or"pure").ThenamemayhavebeenselectedinreactiontothenameoftheMingdynasty(明),whichconsistsoftheChinesecharactersfor"sun"(日)and"moon"(月),bothassociatedwiththefireelementoftheChinesezodiacalsystem.ThecharacterQīng(清)iscomposedof"water"(氵)and"azure"(青),bothassociatedwiththewaterelement.ThisassociationwouldjustifytheQingconquestasdefeatoffirebywater.ThewaterimageryofthenewnamemayalsohavehadBuddhistovertonesofperspicacityandenlightenmentandconnectionswiththeBodhisattvaManjusri.[5]TheManchunamedaicing,whichsoundslikeaphoneticrenderingofDàQīngorDaiChing,mayinfacthavebeenderivedfromaMongolianword"ᠳᠠᠢᠢᠴᠢᠨ,дайчин"thatmeans"warrior".Daicinggurunmaythereforehavemeant"warriorstate",apunthatwasintelligibleonlytoManchuandMongolpeople.Inthelaterpartofthedynasty,however,eventheManchusthemselveshadforgottenthispossiblemeaning.[6] EarlyEuropeanwritersusedtheterm"Tartar"indiscriminatelyforallthepeoplesofNorthernEurasiabutinthe17thcenturyCatholicmissionarywritingsestablished"Tartar"toreferonlytotheManchusand"Tartary"forthelandstheyruled.[7] Afterconquering"Chinaproper",theManchusidentifiedtheirstateas"China"(中國,Zhōngguó;"MiddleKingdom"),andreferredtoitasDulimbaiGuruninManchu(Dulimbaimeans"central"or"middle,"gurunmeans"nation"or"state").TheemperorsequatedthelandsoftheQingstate(includingpresent-dayNortheastChina,Xinjiang,Mongolia,Tibetandotherareas)as"China"inboththeChineseandManchulanguages,definingChinaasamulti-ethnicstate,andrejectingtheideathat"China"onlymeantHanareas.TheQingemperorsproclaimedthatbothHanandnon-Hanpeopleswerepartof"China".Theyusedboth"China"and"Qing"torefertotheirstateinofficialdocuments.[8]IntheChinese-languageversionsofitstreatiesanditsmapsoftheworld,theQinggovernmentused"Qing"and"China"interchangeably.[9] InEnglishlanguagetexts,theQingdynastyissometimesknownasthe"Manchudynasty"[10]andthe"ManchudynastyofChina"[11]basedontheethnicityofitsmonarchs.Itisalsosometimesrenderedas"Ch'ingdynasty"intheWade–Gilesromanization. History Mainarticle:HistoryoftheQingdynasty Furtherinformation:TimelineoftheQingdynastyandHistoryofforeignrelationsofChina FormationoftheManchustate Furtherinformation:ManchuriaunderMingrule,Jurchenunification,andTimelineoftheJurchens§ 17thcentury TheQingdynastywasfoundednotbyHanChinese,whoconstitutethemajorityoftheChinesepopulation,butbytheManchu,descendantsofasedentaryfarmingpeopleknownastheJurchen,aTungusicpeoplewholivedaroundtheregionnowcomprisingtheChineseprovincesofJilinandHeilongjiang.[12]TheManchusaresometimesmistakenforanomadicpeople,[13]whichtheywerenot.[14][15] Nurhaci WhatwastobecometheManchustatewasfoundedbyNurhaci,thechieftainofaminorJurchentribe –theAisin-Gioro –inJianzhouintheearly17thcentury.NurhacimayhavespenttimeinaChinesehouseholdinhisyouth,andbecamefluentinChineseaswellasMongol,andreadtheChinesenovelsRomanceoftheThreeKingdomsandWaterMargin.[16][17]OriginallyavassaloftheMingemperors,Nurhaciembarkedonanintertribalfeudin1582thatescalatedintoacampaigntounifythenearbytribes.By1616,hehadsufficientlyconsolidatedJianzhousoastobeabletoproclaimhimselfKhanoftheGreatJininreferencetothepreviousJurchendynasty.[18] Italian1682mapshowingthe"KingdomoftheNüzhen"orthe"JinTartars" Twoyearslater,Nurhaciannouncedthe"SevenGrievances"andopenlyrenouncedthesovereigntyofMingoverlordshipinordertocompletetheunificationofthoseJurchentribesstillalliedwiththeMingemperor.Afteraseriesofsuccessfulbattles,herelocatedhiscapitalfromHetuAlatosuccessivelybiggercapturedMingcitiesinLiaodong:firstLiaoyangin1621,thenShenyang(Manchu:Mukden)in1625.[18] Furthermore,theKhorchinprovedausefulallyinthewar,lendingtheJurchenstheirexpertiseascavalryarchers.Toguaranteethisnewalliance,Nurhaciinitiatedapolicyofinter-marriagesbetweentheJurchenandKhorchinnobilities,whilethosewhoresistedweremetwithmilitaryaction.ThisisatypicalexampleofNurhaci'sinitiativesthateventuallybecameofficialQinggovernmentpolicy.DuringmostoftheQingperiod,theMongolsgavemilitaryassistancetotheManchus.[19] ManchucavalrychargingMinginfantrybattleofSarhuin1619 HongTaiji Nurhacidiedin1626,andwassucceededbyhiseighthson,HongTaiji.AlthoughHongTaijiwasanexperiencedleaderandthecommanderoftwoBanners,theJurchenssuffereddefeatin1627,inpartduetotheMing'snewlyacquiredPortuguesecannons.Toredressthetechnologicalandnumericaldisparity,HongTaijiin1634createdhisownartillerycorpsfromhisexistingHantroops,whocasttheirowncannonsintheEuropeandesignwiththehelpofdefectorChinesemetallurgists.OneofthedefiningeventsofHongTaiji'sreignwastheofficialadoptionofthename"Manchu"fortheunitedJurchenpeopleinNovember1635.In1635,theManchus'MongolallieswerefullyincorporatedintoaseparateBannerhierarchyunderdirectManchucommand.InApril1636,MongolnobilityofInnerMongolia,ManchunobilityandtheHanmandarinrecommendedthatHongasthekhanofLaterJinshouldbetheemperoroftheGreatQingempire.[20][21]WhenhewaspresentedwiththeimperialsealoftheYuandynastyafterthedefeatofthelastKhaganoftheMongols,HongTaijirenamedhisstatefrom"GreatJin"to"GreatQing"andelevatedhispositionfromKhantoEmperor,suggestingimperialambitionsbeyondunifyingtheManchuterritories.HongTaijithenproceededtoinvadeKoreaagainin1636. Surahannichiha(CoinsofTiancongKhan)inManchualphabet Meanwhile,HongTaijisetuparudimentarybureaucraticsystembasedontheMingmodel.Heestablishedsixboardsorexecutivelevelministriesin1631tooverseefinance,personnel,rites,military,punishments,andpublicworks.However,theseadministrativeorganshadverylittleroleinitially,anditwasnotuntiltheeveofcompletingtheconquesttenyearslaterthattheyfulfilledtheirgovernmentroles.[22] HongTaijistaffedhisbureaucracywithmanyHanChinese,includingnewlysurrenderedMingofficials,butensuredManchudominancebyanethnicquotafortopappointments.HongTaiji'sreignalsosawafundamentalchangeofpolicytowardshisHanChinesesubjects.NurhacihadtreatedHaninLiaodongaccordingtohowmuchgraintheyhad:thosewithlessthan5to7sinweretreatedbadly,whilethosewithmorewererewardedwithproperty.DuetoaHanrevoltin1623,Nurhaci,turnedagainstthemandorderedthattheynolongerbetrustedandenacteddiscriminatorypoliciesandkillingsagainstthem.HeorderedthatHanwhoassimilatedtotheJurchen(inJilin)before1619betreatedequallywithJurchens,notliketheconqueredHaninLiaodong.HongTaijirecognizedtheneedtoattractHanChinese,explainingtoreluctantManchuswhyheneededtotreattheMingdefectorGeneralHongChengchouleniently.[23]HongTaijiincorporatedHanintotheJurchen"nation"asfull(ifnotfirst-class)citizens,obligatedtoprovidemilitaryservice.By1648,lessthanone-sixthofthebannermenwereofManchuancestry.[24] ClaimingtheMandateofHeaven Seealso:TransitionfromMingtoQing Dorgon(1612–1650) HongTaijidiedsuddenlyinSeptember1643.AstheJurchenshadtraditionally"elected"theirleaderthroughacouncilofnobles,theQingstatedidnothaveaclearsuccessionsystem.TheleadingcontendersforpowerwereHongTaiji'soldestsonHoogeandHongTaiji'shalfbrotherDorgon.AcompromiseinstalledHongTaiji'sfive-year-oldson,Fulin,astheShunzhiEmperor,withDorgonasregentanddefactoleaderoftheManchunation. Meanwhile,Minggovernmentofficialsfoughtagainsteachother,againstfiscalcollapse,andagainstaseriesofpeasantrebellions.TheywereunabletocapitaliseontheManchusuccessiondisputeandthepresenceofaminorasemperor.InApril1644,thecapital,Beijing,wassackedbyacoalitionofrebelforcesledbyLiZicheng,aformerminorMingofficial,whoestablishedashort-livedShundynasty.ThelastMingruler,theChongzhenEmperor,committedsuicidewhenthecityfelltotherebels,markingtheofficialendofthedynasty. LiZichengthenledrebelforcesnumberingsome200,000[25]toconfrontWuSangui,atShanhaiPass,akeypassoftheGreatWall,whichdefendedthecapital.WuSangui,caughtbetweenaChineserebelarmytwicehissizeandaforeignenemyhehadfoughtforyears,casthislotwiththefamiliarManchus.WuSanguimayhavebeeninfluencedbyLiZicheng'smistreatmentofwealthyandculturedofficials,includingLi'sownfamily;itwassaidthatLitookWu'sconcubineChenYuanyuanforhimself.WuandDorgonalliedinthenameofavengingthedeathoftheChongzhenEmperor.Together,thetwoformerenemiesmetanddefeatedLiZicheng'srebelforcesinbattleonMay27,1644.[26] ThenewlyalliedarmiescapturedBeijingon6June.TheShunzhiEmperorwasinvestedasthe"SonofHeaven"on30October.TheManchus,whohadpositionedthemselvesaspoliticalheirstotheMingemperorbydefeatingLiZicheng,completedthesymbolictransitionbyholdingaformalfuneralfortheChongzhenEmperor.However,conqueringtherestofChinaPropertookanotherseventeenyearsofbattlingMingloyalists,pretendersandrebels.ThelastMingpretender,PrinceGui,soughtrefugewiththeKingofBurma,PindaleMin,butwasturnedovertoaQingexpeditionaryarmycommandedbyWuSangui,whohadhimbroughtbacktoYunnanprovinceandexecutedinearly1662. TheQinghadtakenshrewdadvantageofMingciviliangovernmentdiscriminationagainstthemilitaryandencouragedtheMingmilitarytodefectbyspreadingthemessagethattheManchusvaluedtheirskills.[27]BannersmadeupofHanChinesewhodefectedbefore1644wereclassedamongtheEightBanners,givingthemsocialandlegalprivileges.HandefectorsswelledtheranksoftheEightBannerssogreatlythatethnicManchusbecameaminority—only16%in1648,withHanBannermendominatingat75%andMongolBannermenmakinguptherest.[28]GunpowderweaponslikemusketsandartillerywerewieldedbytheChineseBanners.[29]Normally,HanChinesedefectortroopsweredeployedasthevanguard,whileManchuBannermenactedasreserveforcesorintherearandwereusedpredominantlyforquickstrikeswithmaximumimpact,soastominimizeethnicManchulosses.[30] Thismulti-ethnicforceconqueredChinafortheQing,[31]ThethreeLiaodongHanBannermenofficerswhoplayedkeyrolesintheconquestofsouthernChinawereShangKexi,GengZhongming,andKongYoude,whogovernedsouthernChinaautonomouslyasviceroysfortheQingaftertheconquest.[32]HanChineseBannermenmadeupthemajorityofgovernorsintheearlyQing,stabilizingQingrule.[33]Topromoteethnicharmony,a1648decreeallowedHanChinesecivilianmentomarryManchuwomenfromtheBannerswiththepermissionoftheBoardofRevenueiftheywereregistereddaughtersofofficialsorcommoners,orwiththepermissionoftheirbannercompanycaptainiftheywereunregisteredcommoners.Laterinthedynastythepoliciesallowingintermarriageweredoneawaywith.[34] QingEmpirein1636 ThefirstsevenyearsoftheyoungShunzhiEmperor'sreignweredominatedbyDorgon'sregency.Becauseofhisownpoliticalinsecurity,DorgonfollowedHongTaiji'sexamplebyrulinginthenameoftheemperorattheexpenseofrivalManchuprinces,manyofwhomhedemotedorimprisonedunderonepretextoranother.Dorgon'sprecedentsandexamplecastalongshadow.First,theManchushadentered"SouthoftheWall"becauseDorgonhadrespondeddecisivelytoWuSangui'sappeal,then,insteadofsackingBeijingastherebelshaddone,Dorgoninsisted,overtheprotestsofotherManchuprinces,onmakingitthedynasticcapitalandreappointingmostMingofficials.NomajorChinesedynastyhaddirectlytakenoveritsimmediatepredecessor'scapital,butkeepingtheMingcapitalandbureaucracyintacthelpedquicklystabilizetheregimeandspeduptheconquestoftherestofthecountry.Dorgonthendrasticallyreducedtheinfluenceoftheeunuchs,amajorforceintheMingbureaucracy,anddirectedManchuwomennottobindtheirfeetintheChinesestyle.[35] However,notallofDorgon'spolicieswereequallypopularoraseasytoimplement.ThecontroversialJuly1645edict(the"haircuttingorder")forcedadultHanChinesementoshavethefrontoftheirheadsandcombtheremaininghairintothequeuehairstylewhichwaswornbyManchumen,onpainofdeath.[36]Thepopulardescriptionoftheorderwas:"Tokeepthehair,youlosethehead;Tokeepyourhead,youcutthehair."[35]TotheManchus,thispolicywasatestofloyaltyandanaidindistinguishingfriendfromfoe.FortheHanChinese,however,itwasahumiliatingreminderofQingauthoritythatchallengedtraditionalConfucianvalues.[37]TheordertriggeredstrongresistanceinJiangnan.[38]Intheensuingunrest,some100,000Hanwereslaughtered.[39][40][41] TheQingconquestoftheMingandexpansionoftheempire On31December1650,Dorgonsuddenlydiedduringahuntingexpedition,markingthestartoftheShunzhiEmperor'spersonalrule.Becausetheemperorwasonly12yearsoldatthattime,mostdecisionsweremadeonhisbehalfbyhismother,EmpressDowagerXiaozhuang,whoturnedouttobeaskilledpoliticaloperator.AlthoughhissupporthadbeenessentialtoShunzhi'sascent,Dorgonhadcentralisedsomuchpowerinhishandsastobecomeadirectthreattothethrone.SomuchsothatuponhisdeathhewasbestowedtheextraordinaryposthumoustitleofEmperorYi(Chinese:義皇帝),theonlyinstanceinQinghistoryinwhichaManchu"princeoftheblood"(Chinese:親王)wassohonored.TwomonthsintoShunzhi'spersonalrule,however,Dorgonwasnotonlystrippedofhistitles,buthiscorpsewasdisinterredandmutilated.[42]Dorgon'sfallfromgracealsoledtothepurgeofhisfamilyandassociatesatcourt,thusrevertingpowerbacktothepersonoftheemperor.Shunzhi'spromisingstartwascutshortbyhisearlydeathin1661attheageof24fromsmallpox.HewassucceededbyhisthirdsonXuanye,whoreignedastheKangxiEmperor. TheManchussentHanBannermentofightagainstKoxinga'sMingloyalistsinFujian.[43]TheyremovedthepopulationfromcoastalareasinordertodepriveKoxinga'sMingloyalistsofresources.ThisledtoamisunderstandingthatManchuswere"afraidofwater".HanBannermencarriedoutthefightingandkilling,castingdoubtontheclaimthatfearofthewaterledtothecoastalevacuationandbanonmaritimeactivities.[44]EventhoughapoemreferstothesoldierscarryingoutmassacresinFujianas"barbarians",bothHanGreenStandardArmyandHanBannermenwereinvolvedandcarriedouttheworstslaughter.[45]400,000GreenStandardArmysoldierswereusedagainsttheThreeFeudatoriesinadditiontothe200,000Bannermen.[46] KangxiEmperor'sreignandconsolidation Seealso:RevoltoftheThreeFeudatoriesandHighQingera TheKangxiEmperor(r.1662–1722) Thesixty-oneyearreignoftheKangxiEmperorwasthelongestofanyemperorofChinaandmarkedthebeginningofthe"HighQing"era,thezenithofthedynasty'ssocial,economicandmilitarypower.TheearlyManchurulersestablishedtwofoundationsoflegitimacythathelptoexplainthestabilityoftheirdynasty.Thefirstwasthebureaucraticinstitutionsandtheneo-Confucianculturethattheyadoptedfromearlierdynasties.[47]ManchurulersandHanChinesescholar-officialelitesgraduallycametotermswitheachother.TheexaminationsystemofferedapathforethnicHantobecomeofficials.ImperialpatronageofKangxiDictionarydemonstratedrespectforConfucianlearning,whiletheSacredEdictof1670effectivelyextolledConfucianfamilyvalues.HisattemptstodiscourageChinesewomenfromfootbinding,however,wereunsuccessful. PlacardinMongolian,Tibetan,Chinese,ManchuYonghemonasteryinBeijing ThesecondmajorsourceofstabilitywastheCentralAsianaspectoftheirManchuidentity,whichallowedthemtoappealtoMongol,TibetanandUighurconstituents.[48]TheQingusedthetitleofEmperor(Huangdi)inChinese,whileamongMongolstheQingmonarchwasreferredtoasBogdakhan(wiseKhan),andreferredtoasGongMainTibet.[49]TheQianlongEmperorpropagatedtheimageofhimselfasaBuddhistsageruler,apatronofTibetanBuddhism.[50]TheKangxiEmperoralsowelcomedtohiscourtJesuitmissionaries,whohadfirstcometoChinaundertheMing. Kangxi'sreignstartedwhenhewaseightyearsold.TopreventarepeatofDorgon'smonopolizingofpower,onhisdeathbedhisfatherhastilyappointedfourregentswhowerenotcloselyrelatedtotheimperialfamilyandhadnoclaimtothethrone.However,throughchanceandmachination,Oboi,themostjuniorofthefour,graduallyachievedsuchdominanceastobeapotentialthreat.EventhoughOboi'sloyaltywasneveranissue,hisarroganceandconservatismledhimintoanescalatingconflictwiththeyoungemperor.In1669Kangxi,throughtrickery,disarmedandimprisonedOboi–asignificantvictoryforafifteen-year-oldemperor. Theyoungemperorfacedchallengesinmaintainingcontrolofhiskingdom,aswell.ThreeMinggeneralssingledoutfortheircontributionstotheestablishmentofthedynastyhadbeengrantedgovernorshipsinSouthernChina.Theybecameincreasinglyautonomous,leadingtotheRevoltoftheThreeFeudatories,whichlastedforeightyears.KangxiwasabletounifyhisforcesforacounterattackledbyanewgenerationofManchugenerals.By1681,theQinggovernmenthadestablishedcontroloveraravagedsouthernChina,whichtookseveraldecadestorecover.[51] EmperorwithManchuarmyinKhalkha1688 Toextendandconsolidatethedynasty'scontrolinCentralAsia,theKangxiEmperorpersonallyledaseriesofmilitarycampaignsagainsttheDzungarsinOuterMongolia.TheKangxiEmperorexpelledGaldan'sinvadingforcesfromtheseregions,whichwerethenincorporatedintotheempire.GaldanwaseventuallykilledintheDzungar–QingWar.[52]In1683,QingforcesreceivedthesurrenderofFormosa(Taiwan)fromZhengKeshuang,grandsonofKoxinga,whohadconqueredTaiwanfromtheDutchcolonistsasabaseagainsttheQing.WinningTaiwanfreedKangxi'sforcesforseriesofbattlesoverAlbazin,thefareasternoutpostoftheTsardomofRussia.The1689TreatyofNerchinskwasChina'sfirstformaltreatywithaEuropeanpowerandkepttheborderpeacefulforthebetterpartoftwocenturies.AfterGaldan'sdeath,hisfollowers,asadherentstoTibetanBuddhism,attemptedtocontrolthechoiceofthenextDalaiLama.KangxidispatchedtwoarmiestoLhasa,thecapitalofTibet,andinstalledaDalaiLamasympathetictotheQing.[53] ReignsoftheYongzhengandQianlongemperors PutuoZongchengTemple,Chengde,Qianlongreign;builtonthemodelofPotalaPalace,Lhasa ThereignsoftheYongzhengEmperor(r.1723–1735)andhisson,theQianlongEmperor(r.1735–1796),markedtheheightofQingpower.Yet,asthehistorianJonathanSpenceputsit,theempirebytheendoftheQianlongreignwas"likethesunatmidday".Inthemidstof"manyglories",hewrites,"signsofdecayandevencollapsewerebecomingapparent".[54] AfterthedeathoftheKangxiEmperorinthewinterof1722,hisfourthson,PrinceYong(雍親王),becametheYongzhengEmperor.InthelateryearsofKangxi'sreign,Yongzhengandhisbrothershadfought,andtherewereunsubstantiatedrumoursthathehadusurpedthethronebytamperingwiththeKangxi'stestamentonthenightwhenKangxidied.Infact,hisfatherhadtrustedhimwithdelicatepoliticalissuesanddiscussedstatepolicywithhim.WhenYongzhengcametopowerattheageof45,hefeltasenseofurgencyabouttheproblemsthathadaccumulatedinhisfather'slateryears,andhedidnotneedinstructiononhowtoexercisepower.[55]Inthewordsofonerecenthistorian,hewas"severe,suspicious,andjealous,butextremelycapableandresourceful",[56]andinthewordsofanother,heturnedouttobean"earlymodernstate-makerofthefirstorder".[57] Yongzhengmovedrapidly.First,hepromotedConfucianorthodoxyandreversedwhathesawashisfather'slaxnessbycrackingdownonunorthodoxsectsandbydecapitatingananti-Manchuwriterhisfatherhadpardoned.In1723heoutlawedChristianityandexpelledChristianmissionaries,thoughsomewereallowedtoremaininthecapital.[58]Next,hemovedtocontrolthegovernment.Heexpandedhisfather'ssystemofPalaceMemorials,whichbroughtfrankanddetailedreportsonlocalconditionsdirectlytothethronewithoutbeinginterceptedbythebureaucracy,andhecreatedasmallGrandCouncilofpersonaladvisors,whicheventuallygrewintotheemperor'sdefactocabinetfortherestofthedynasty.HeshrewdlyfilledkeypositionswithManchuandHanChineseofficialswhodependedonhispatronage.Whenhebegantorealizethatthefinancialcrisiswasevengreaterthanhehadthought,Yongzhengrejectedhisfather'slenientapproachtolocallandowningelitesandmountedacampaigntoenforcecollectionofthelandtax.Theincreasedrevenuesweretobeusedfor"moneytonourishhonesty"amonglocalofficialsandforlocalirrigation,schools,roads,andcharity.Althoughthesereformswereeffectiveinthenorth,inthesouthandlowerYangzivalley,whereKangxihadwooedtheelites,therewerelongestablishednetworksofofficialsandlandowners.YongzhengdispatchedexperiencedManchucommissionerstopenetratethethicketsoffalsifiedlandregistersandcodedaccountbooks,buttheyweremetwithtricks,passivity,andevenviolence.Thefiscalcrisispersisted.[59] CampaignagainsttheDzungarsintheQingconquestofXinjiang1755–1758 Yongzhengalsoinheriteddiplomaticandstrategicproblems.AteammadeupentirelyofManchusdrewuptheTreatyofKyakhta(1727)tosolidifythediplomaticunderstandingwithRussia.Inexchangeforterritoryandtradingrights,theQingwouldhaveafreehanddealingwiththesituationinMongolia.Yongzhengthenturnedtothatsituation,wheretheZungharsthreatenedtore-emerge,andtothesouthwest,wherelocalMiaochieftainsresistedQingexpansion.Thesecampaignsdrainedthetreasurybutestablishedtheemperor'scontrolofthemilitaryandmilitaryfinance.[60] WhenYongzhengEmperordiedin1735his24-year-oldson,PrinceBao(寶親王),becametheQianlongEmperor.QianlongpersonallyledtheTenGreatCampaignstoexpandmilitarycontrolintopresent-dayXinjiangandMongolia,puttingdownrevoltsanduprisingsinSichuanandpartsofsouthernChinawhileexpandingcontroloverTibet. LordMacartneysalutingtheQianlongEmperor TheQianlongEmperorlaunchedseveralambitiousculturalprojects,includingthecompilationoftheSikuQuanshu,orCompleteRepositoryoftheFourBranchesofLiterature,thelargestcollectionofbooksinChinesehistory.Nevertheless,QianlongusedLiteraryInquisitiontosilenceopposition.[61]Beneathoutwardprosperityandimperialconfidence,thelateryearsofQianlong'sreignweremarkedbyrampantcorruptionandneglect.Heshen,theemperor'shandsomeyoungfavorite,tookadvantageoftheemperor'sindulgencetobecomeoneofthemostcorruptofficialsinthehistoryofthedynasty.[62]Qianlong'sson,theJiaqingEmperor(r.1796–1820),eventuallyforcedHeshentocommitsuicide. Commerceonthewater,ProsperousSuzhoubyXuYang,1759 Populationwasstagnantforthefirsthalfofthe17thcenturyduetocivilwarsandepidemics,butprosperityandinternalstabilitygraduallyreversedthistrend.TheQianlongEmperorbemoanedthesituationbyremarking,"Thepopulationcontinuestogrow,butthelanddoesnot."TheintroductionofnewcropsfromtheAmericassuchasthepotatoandpeanutallowedanimprovedfoodsupplyaswell,sothatthetotalpopulationofChinaduringthe18thcenturyballoonedfrom100 millionto300 millionpeople.Soonfarmerswereforcedtoworkever-smallerholdingsmoreintensely.TheonlyremainingpartoftheempirethathadarablefarmlandwasManchuria,wheretheprovincesofJilinandHeilongjianghadbeenwalledoffasaManchuhomeland.Despiteprohibitions,bythe18thcenturyHanChinesestreamedintoManchuria,bothillegallyandlegally,overtheGreatWallandWillowPalisade. In1796,openrebellionbrokeoutamongfollowersoftheWhiteLotusSociety,whoblamedQingofficials,saying"theofficialshaveforcedthepeopletorebel."Officialsinotherpartsofthecountrywerealsoblamedforcorruption,failingtokeepthefaminereliefgranariesfull,poormaintenanceofroadsandwaterworks,andbureaucraticfactionalism.Theresoonfolloweduprisingsof"newsect"MuslimsagainstlocalMuslimofficials,andMiaotribesmeninsouthwestChina.TheWhiteLotusRebellioncontinuedforeightyears,until1804,whenbadlyrun,corrupt,andbrutalcampaignsfinallyendedit.[63] Rebellion,unrestandexternalpressure BritishSteamshipdestroyingChinesewarjunks(E.Duncan)(1843) Atthestartofthedynasty,theChineseempirecontinuedtobethehegemonicpowerinEastAsia.Althoughtherewasnoformalministryofforeignrelations,theLifanYuanwasresponsibleforrelationswiththeMongolandTibetansinCentralAsia,whilethetributarysystem,aloosesetofinstitutionsandcustomstakenoverfromtheMing,intheorygovernedrelationswithEastandSoutheastAsiancountries.TheTreatyofNerchinsk(1689)stabilizedrelationswithTsaristRussia. However,duringthe18thcenturyEuropeanempiresgraduallyexpandedacrosstheworld,asEuropeanstatesdevelopedeconomiesbuiltonmaritimetrade,colonialextraction,andadvancesintechnology.Thedynastywasconfrontedwithnewlydevelopingconceptsoftheinternationalsystemandstate-to-staterelations.EuropeantradingpostsexpandedintoterritorialcontrolinnearbyIndiaandontheislandsthatarenowIndonesia.TheQingresponse,successfulforatime,wastoestablishtheCantonSystemin1756,whichrestrictedmaritimetradetothatcity(modern-dayGuangzhou)andgavemonopolytradingrightstoprivateChinesemerchants.TheBritishEastIndiaCompanyandtheDutchEastIndiaCompanyhadlongbeforebeengrantedsimilarmonopolyrightsbytheirgovernments. In1793,theBritishEastIndiaCompany,withthesupportoftheBritishgovernment,sentadiplomaticmissiontoChinaledbyLordGeorgeMacartneyinordertoopentradeandputrelationsonabasisofequality.Theimperialcourtviewedtradeasofsecondaryinterest,whereastheBritishsawmaritimetradeasthekeytotheireconomy.TheQianlongEmperortoldMacartney"thekingsofthemyriadnationscomebylandandseawithallsortsofpreciousthings",and"consequentlythereisnothingwelack..."[64] ViewoftheCantonRiver,showingtheThirteenFactoriesinthebackground,1850–1855 SinceChinahadlittledemandforEuropeangoods,EuropepaidinsilverforChinesegoodssuchassilk,tea,andceramics,animbalancethatworriedthemercantilistgovernmentsofBritainandFrance.ThegrowingChinesedemandforopiumprovidedtheremedy.TheBritishEastIndiaCompanygreatlyexpandeditsproductioninBengal.TheDaoguangEmperor,concernedbothovertheoutflowofsilverandthedamagethatopiumsmokingwascausingtohissubjects,orderedLinZexutoendtheopiumtrade.Linconfiscatedthestocksofopiumwithoutcompensationin1839,leadingBritaintosendamilitaryexpeditionthefollowingyear. TheFirstOpiumWarrevealedtheoutdatedstateoftheChinesemilitary.TheQingnavy,composedentirelyofwoodensailingjunks,wasseverelyoutclassedbythemoderntacticsandfirepoweroftheBritishRoyalNavy.Britishsoldiers,usingadvancedmusketsandartillery,easilyoutmaneuveredandoutgunnedQingforcesingroundbattles.TheQingsurrenderin1842markedadecisive,humiliatingblow.TheTreatyofNanjing,thefirstofthe"unequaltreaties",demandedwarreparations,forcedChinatoopenuptheTreatyPortsofCanton,Amoy,Fuchow,NingpoandShanghaitoWesterntradeandmissionaries,andtocedeHongKongIslandtoBritain.ItrevealedweaknessesintheQinggovernmentandprovokedrebellionsagainsttheregime. TheTaipingRebellioninthemid-19thcenturywasthefirstmajorinstanceofanti-Manchusentiment.TherebellionbeganundertheleadershipofHongXiuquan(1814–64),adisappointedcivilserviceexaminationcandidatewho,influencedbyChristianteachings,hadaseriesofvisionsandbelievedhimselftobethesonofGod,theyoungerbrotherofJesusChrist,senttoreformChina.AfriendofHong's,FengYunshan,utilizedHong'sideastoorganizeanewreligiousgroup,theGodWorshippers’Society(BaiShangdiHui),whichheformedamongtheimpoverishedpeasantsofGuangxiprovince.[65]Amidwidespreadsocialunrestandworseningfamine,therebellionnotonlyposedthemostseriousthreattowardsQingrulers,ithasalsobeencalledthe"bloodiestcivilwarofalltime";duringitsfourteen-yearcoursefrom1850to1864between20and30 millionpeopledied.[66]HongXiuquan,afailedcivilservicecandidate,in1851launchedanuprisinginGuizhouprovince,andestablishedtheTaipingHeavenlyKingdomwithHonghimselfasking.HongannouncedthathehadvisionsofGodandthathewasthebrotherofJesusChrist.Slavery,concubinage,arrangedmarriage,opiumsmoking,footbinding,judicialtorture,andtheworshipofidolswereallbanned.However,successledtointernalfeuds,defectionsandcorruption.Inaddition,BritishandFrenchtroops,equippedwithmodernweapons,hadcometotheassistanceoftheQingimperialarmy.Itwasnotuntil1864thatQingarmiesunderZengGuofansucceededincrushingtherevolt.Aftertheoutbreakofthisrebellion,therewerealsorevoltsbytheMuslimsandMiaopeopleofChinaagainsttheQingdynasty,mostnotablyintheMiaoRebellion(1854–73)inGuizhou,thePanthayRebellion(1856–1873)inYunnanandtheDunganRevolt(1862–77)inthenorthwest. GovernmentforcesdefeatTaipingarmies TheWesternpowers,largelyunsatisfiedwiththeTreatyofNanjing,gavegrudgingsupporttotheQinggovernmentduringtheTaipingandNianRebellions.China'sincomefellsharplyduringthewarsasvastareasoffarmlandweredestroyed,millionsofliveswerelost,andcountlessarmieswereraisedandequippedtofighttherebels.In1854,Britaintriedtore-negotiatetheTreatyofNanjing,insertingclausesallowingBritishcommercialaccesstoChineseriversandthecreationofapermanentBritishembassyatBeijing. Yixin,PrinceGong In1856,Qingauthorities,insearchingforapirate,boardedaship,theArrow,whichtheBritishclaimedhadbeenflyingtheBritishflag,anincidentwhichledtotheSecondOpiumWar.In1858,facingnootheroptions,theXianfengEmperoragreedtotheTreatyofTientsin,whichcontainedclausesdeeplyinsultingtotheChinese,suchasademandthatallofficialChinesedocumentsbewritteninEnglishandaprovisograntingBritishwarshipsunlimitedaccesstoallnavigableChineserivers. Ratificationofthetreatyinthefollowingyearledtoaresumptionofhostilities.In1860,withAnglo-FrenchforcesmarchingonBeijing,theemperorandhiscourtfledthecapitalfortheimperialhuntinglodgeatRehe.OnceinBeijing,theAnglo-FrenchforceslootedandburnedtheOldSummerPalaceand,inanactofrevengeforthearrest,torture,andexecutionoftheEnglishdiplomaticmission.[67]PrinceGong,ayoungerhalf-brotheroftheemperor,whohadbeenleftashisbrother'sproxyinthecapital,wasforcedtosigntheConventionofBeijing.ThehumiliatedemperordiedthefollowingyearatRehe. Self-strengtheningandthefrustrationofreforms Yetthedynastyrallied.ChinesegeneralsandofficialssuchasZuoZongtangledthesuppressionofrebellionsandstoodbehindtheManchus.WhentheTongzhiEmperorcametothethroneattheageoffivein1861,theseofficialsralliedaroundhiminwhatwascalledtheTongzhiRestoration.TheiraimwastoadoptWesternmilitarytechnologyinordertopreserveConfucianvalues.ZengGuofan,inalliancewithPrinceGong,sponsoredtheriseofyoungerofficialssuchasLiHongzhang,whoputthedynastybackonitsfeetfinanciallyandinstitutedtheSelf-StrengtheningMovement.Thereformersthenproceededwithinstitutionalreforms,includingChina'sfirstunifiedministryofforeignaffairs,theZongliYamen;allowingforeigndiplomatstoresideinthecapital;establishmentoftheImperialMaritimeCustomsService;theformationofmodernizedarmies,suchastheBeiyangArmy,aswellasanavy;andthepurchasefromEuropeansofarmamentfactories.[68] Thedynastylostcontrolofperipheralterritoriesbitbybit.InreturnforpromisesofsupportagainsttheBritishandtheFrench,theRussianEmpiretooklargechunksofterritoryintheNortheastin1860.TheperiodofcooperationbetweenthereformersandtheEuropeanpowersendedwiththeTientsinMassacreof1870,whichwasincitedbythemurderofFrenchnunssetoffbythebelligerenceoflocalFrenchdiplomats.StartingwiththeCochinchinaCampaignin1858,FranceexpandedcontrolofIndochina.By1883,FrancewasinfullcontroloftheregionandhadreachedtheChineseborder.TheSino-FrenchWarbeganwithasurpriseattackbytheFrenchontheChinesesouthernfleetatFuzhou.AfterthattheChinesedeclaredwarontheFrench.AFrenchinvasionofTaiwanwashaltedandtheFrenchweredefeatedonlandinTonkinattheBattleofBangBo.HoweverJapanthreatenedtoenterthewaragainstChinaduetotheGapsinCoupandChinachosetoendthewarwithnegotiations.Thewarendedin1885withtheTreatyofTientsin(1885)andtheChineserecognitionoftheFrenchprotectorateinVietnam.[69] In1884,pro-JapaneseKoreansinSeoulledtheGapsinCoup.TensionsbetweenChinaandJapanroseafterChinaintervenedtosuppresstheuprising.JapanesePrimeMinisterItōHirobumiandLiHongzhangsignedtheConventionofTientsin,anagreementtowithdrawtroopssimultaneously,buttheFirstSino-JapaneseWarof1895wasamilitaryhumiliation.TheTreatyofShimonosekirecognizedKoreanindependenceandcededTaiwanandthePescadorestoJapan.Thetermsmighthavebeenharsher,butwhenaJapanesecitizenattackedandwoundedLiHongzhang,aninternationaloutcryshamedtheJapaneseintorevisingthem.TheoriginalagreementstipulatedthecessionofLiaodongPeninsulatoJapan,butRussia,withitsowndesignsontheterritory,alongwithGermanyandFrance,intheTripleIntervention,successfullyputpressureontheJapanesetoabandonthepeninsula. EmpressDowagerCixi(OilpaintingbyHubertVosc.1905)) TheseyearssawanevolutionintheparticipationofEmpressDowagerCixi(Wade–Giles:Tz'u-Hsi)instateaffairs.Sheenteredtheimperialpalaceinthe1850sasaconcubinetotheXianfengEmperor(r.1850–1861)andcametopowerin1861afterherfive-year-oldson,theTongzhiEmperorascendedthethrone.She,theEmpressDowagerCi'an(whohadbeenXianfeng'sempress),andPrinceGong(asonoftheDaoguangEmperor),stagedacoupthatoustedseveralregentsfortheboyemperor.Between1861and1873,sheandCi'anservedasregents,choosingthereigntitle"Tongzhi"(rulingtogether).Followingtheemperor'sdeathin1875,Cixi'snephew,theGuangxuEmperor,tookthethrone,inviolationofthedynasticcustomthatthenewemperorbeofthenextgeneration,andanotherregencybegan.Inthespringof1881,Ci'ansuddenlydied,agedonlyforty-three,leavingCixiassoleregent.[70] From1889,whenGuangxubegantoruleinhisownright,to1898,theEmpressDowagerlivedinsemi-retirement,spendingthemajorityoftheyearattheSummerPalace.On1November1897,twoGermanRomanCatholicmissionariesweremurderedinthesouthernpartofShandongprovince(theJuyeIncident).GermanyusedthemurdersasapretextforanavaloccupationofJiaozhouBay.Theoccupationprompteda"scrambleforconcessions"in1898,whichincludedtheGermanleaseofJiazhouBay,theRussianacquisitionofLiaodong,andtheBritishleaseoftheNewTerritoriesofHongKong. Britain,Germany,Russia,France,andJapandividingChina Inthewakeoftheseexternaldefeats,theGuangxuEmperorinitiatedtheHundredDays'Reformof1898.Newer,moreradicaladviserssuchasKangYouweiweregivenpositionsofinfluence.Theemperorissuedaseriesofedictsandplansweremadetoreorganizethebureaucracy,restructuretheschoolsystem,andappointnewofficials.Oppositionfromthebureaucracywasimmediateandintense.Althoughshehadbeeninvolvedintheinitialreforms,theEmpressDowagersteppedintocallthemoff,arrestedandexecutedseveralreformers,andtookoverday-to-daycontrolofpolicy.Yetmanyoftheplansstayedinplace,andthegoalsofreformwereimplanted.[71] ForeignarmiesintheForbiddenCity1900 DroughtinNorthChina,combinedwiththeimperialistdesignsofEuropeanpowersandtheinstabilityoftheQinggovernment,createdbackgroundconditionsfortheBoxers.In1900,localgroupsofBoxersproclaimingsupportfortheQingdynastymurderedforeignmissionariesandlargenumbersofChineseChristians,thenconvergedonBeijingtobesiegetheForeignLegationQuarter.AcoalitionofEuropean,Japanese,andRussianarmies(theEight-NationAlliance)thenenteredChinawithoutdiplomaticnotice,muchlesspermission.Cixideclaredwaronallofthesenations,onlytolosecontrolofBeijingafterashort,buthard-foughtcampaign.ShefledtoXi'an.ThevictoriousalliesthenenforcedtheirdemandsontheQinggovernment,includingcompensationfortheirexpensesininvadingChinaandexecutionofcomplicitofficials,viatheBoxerProtocol.[72] Reform,revolution,collapse YuanShikai QingChinain1911 NationalGeographicmapofQingChinain1912,theyearofitscollapse ThedefeatbyJapanin1895createdasenseofcrisiswhichthefailureofthe1898reformsandthedisastersof1900onlyexacerbated.Cixiin1901movedtomollifytheforeigncommunity,calledforreformproposals,andinitiatedasetof"NewPolicies",alsoknownasthe"LateQingReform".Overthenextfewyearsthereformsincludedtherestructuringofthenationaleducation,judicial,andfiscalsystems,themostdramaticofwhichwastheabolitionoftheimperialexaminationsin1905.[73]Thecourtdirectedaconstitutiontobedrafted,andprovincialelectionswereheld,thefirstinChina'shistory.[74]SunYat-senandrevolutionariesdebatedreformofficialsandconstitutionalmonarchistssuchasKangYouweiandLiangQichaooverhowtotransformtheManchuEmpireintoamodernHanChinesenation.[75] Zaifeng,PrinceChun TheGuangxuEmperordiedon14November1908andCixidiedthefollowingday.RumorsheldthatsheorYuanShikaiorderedtrustedeunuchstopoisontheGuangxuEmperor,andanautopsyconductednearlyacenturylaterconfirmedlethallevelsofarsenicinhiscorpse.[76]Puyi,theoldestsonofZaifeng,PrinceChun,andnephewtothechildlessGuangxuEmperor,wasappointedsuccessorattheageoftwo,leavingZaifengwiththeregency.ZaifengforcedYuanShikaitoresign.InApril1911Zaifengcreatedacabinetknownas"TheRoyalCabinet"becauseamongthethirteencabinetmembers,fiveweremembersoftheimperialfamilyorAisin-Giororelatives.[77] TheWuchangUprisingof10October1911setoffaseriesofuprisings.ByNovember,14ofthe15provinceshadrejectedQingrule.ThisledtothecreationoftheRepublicofChina,inNanjingonJanuary1,1912,withSunYat-senasitsprovisionalhead.Seeingadesperatesituation,theQingcourtbroughtYuanShikaibacktopower.HisBeiyangArmycrushedtherevolutionariesinWuhanattheBattleofYangxia.AftertakingthepositionofPrimeMinisterhecreatedhisowncabinet,withthesupportofEmpressDowagerLongyu. Apitchedbattlebetweentheimperialandrevolutionaryarmiesin1911 On12February1912,LongyuissuedtheabdicationofthechildemperorPuyi.Thisbroughtanendtoover2,000yearsofImperialChinaandbeganaperiodofinstability.A"RoyalistParty"triedtorestorethemonarchy,buttonoavail.[78]InJuly1917,therewasanabortiveattempttorestoretheQingdynastyledbyZhangXun.PuyiwasallowedtoliveintheForbiddenCityafterhisabdicationuntil1924,whenhemovedtotheJapaneseconcessioninTianjin.Inthe1930s,theEmpireofJapaninvadedNortheastChinaandfoundedManchukuoin1932,withPuyiasitsemperor.AftertheinvasionbytheSovietUnion,Manchukuofellin1945. Government Mainarticle:GovernmentoftheQingDynasty Seealso:MilitaryoftheQingdynasty AQingdynastymandarin TheearlyQingemperorsadoptedthebureaucraticstructuresandinstitutionsfromtheprecedingMingdynastybutsplitrulebetweenHanChineseandManchus,withsomepositionsalsogiventoMongols.[79]Likepreviousdynasties,theQingrecruitedofficialsviatheimperialexaminationsystem,untilthesystemwasabolishedin1905.TheQingdividedthepositionsintocivilandmilitarypositions,eachhavingninegradesorranks,eachsubdividedintoaandbcategories.CivilappointmentsrangedfromanattendanttotheemperororaGrandSecretaryintheForbiddenCity(highest)tobeingaprefecturaltaxcollector,deputyjailwarden,deputypolicecommissioner,ortaxexaminer.Militaryappointmentsrangedfrombeingafieldmarshalorchamberlainoftheimperialbodyguardtoathirdclasssergeant,corporalorafirstorsecondclassprivate.[80] Centralgovernmentagencies TheformalstructureoftheQinggovernmentcenteredontheEmperorastheabsoluteruler,whopresidedoversixBoards(Ministries[c]),eachheadedbytwopresidents[d]andassistedbyfourvicepresidents.[e]IncontrasttotheMingsystem,however,QingethnicpolicydictatedthatappointmentsweresplitbetweenManchunoblemenandHanofficialswhohadpassedthehighestlevelsofthestateexaminations.TheGrandSecretariat,[f]whichhadbeenanimportantpolicy-makingbodyundertheMing,lostitsimportanceduringtheQingandevolvedintoanimperialchancery.TheinstitutionswhichhadbeeninheritedfromtheMingformedthecoreoftheQing"OuterCourt",whichhandledroutinemattersandwaslocatedinthesouthernpartoftheForbiddenCity.[citationneeded] TheemperorofChinafromTheUniversalTraveller Inordernottolettheroutineadministrationtakeovertherunningoftheempire,theQingemperorsmadesurethatallimportantmattersweredecidedinthe"InnerCourt",whichwasdominatedbytheimperialfamilyandManchunobilityandwhichwaslocatedinthenorthernpartoftheForbiddenCity.ThecoreinstitutionoftheinnercourtwastheGrandCouncil.[g]Itemergedinthe1720sunderthereignoftheYongzhengEmperorasabodychargedwithhandlingQingmilitarycampaignsagainsttheMongols,butsoontookoverothermilitaryandadministrativeduties,centralizingauthorityunderthecrown.[81]TheGrandCouncillors[h]servedasasortofprivycounciltotheemperor. 2000–cashDa-QingBaochaobanknotefrom1859 FromtheearlyQing,thecentralgovernmentwascharacterizedbyasystemofdualappointmentsbywhicheachpositioninthecentralgovernmenthadaManchuandaHanChineseassignedtoit.TheHanChineseappointeewasrequiredtodothesubstantiveworkandtheManchutoensureHanloyaltytoQingrule.[82] ApostagestampfromYantai(Chefoo)intheQingdynasty TherewasalsoanothergovernmentinstitutioncalledImperialHouseholdDepartmentwhichwasuniquetotheQingdynasty.ItwasestablishedbeforethefalloftheMing,butitbecamematureonlyafter1661,followingthedeathoftheShunzhiEmperorandtheaccessionofhisson,theKangxiEmperor.[83]Thedepartment'soriginalpurposewastomanagetheinternalaffairsoftheimperialfamilyandtheactivitiesoftheinnerpalace(inwhichtasksitlargelyreplacedeunuchs),butitalsoplayedanimportantroleinQingrelationswithTibetandMongolia,engagedintradingactivities(jade,ginseng,salt,furs,etc.),managedtextilefactoriesintheJiangnanregion,andevenpublishedbooks.[84]RelationswiththeSaltSuperintendentsandsaltmerchants,suchasthoseatYangzhou,wereparticularlylucrative,especiallysincetheyweredirect,anddidnotgothroughabsorptivelayersofbureaucracy.Thedepartmentwasmannedbybooi,[i]or"bondservants,"fromtheUpperThreeBanners.[85]Bythe19thcentury,itmanagedtheactivitiesofatleast56subagencies.[83][86] Administrativedivisions TheEighteenProvincesofChinaproperin1875–thecoreterritoriesofChina,insidetheGreatWallofChina,controlledbythemajorityofChina'shistoricaldynasties. QingChinain1832 Furtherinformation:HistoryoftheadministrativedivisionsofChinabefore1912§ ProvincesandFeudatoryRegionsundertheQingdynasty,andQingdynastyinInnerAsia TheQingdynastyinca.1820,withprovincesinyellow,militarygovernoratesandprotectoratesinlightyellow,tributarystatesinorange QingChinareacheditslargestextentduringthe18thcentury,whenitruledChinaproper(eighteenprovinces)aswellastheareasofpresent-dayNortheastChina,InnerMongolia,OuterMongolia,XinjiangandTibet,atapproximately13 millionkm2insize.Therewereoriginally18provinces,allofwhichinChinaproper,butlaterthisnumberwasincreasedto22,withManchuriaandXinjiangbeingdividedorturnedintoprovinces.Taiwan,originallypartofFujianprovince,becameaprovinceofitsowninthe19thcentury,[87]butwascededtotheEmpireofJapanfollowingtheFirstSino-JapaneseWarin1895.[88] Territorialadministration TheQingorganizationofprovinceswasbasedonthefifteenadministrativeunitssetupbytheMingdynasty,latermadeintoeighteenprovincesbysplittingforexample,HuguangintoHubeiandHunanprovinces.TheprovincialbureaucracycontinuedtheYuanandMingpracticeofthreeparallellines,civil,military,andcensorate,orsurveillance.Eachprovincewasadministeredbyagovernor(巡撫,xunfu)andaprovincialmilitarycommander(提督,tidu).Belowtheprovincewereprefectures(府,fu)operatingunderaprefect(知府,zhīfǔ),followedbysubprefecturesunderasubprefect.Thelowestunitwasthecounty,overseenbyacountymagistrate.Theeighteenprovincesarealsoknownas"Chinaproper".Thepositionofviceroyorgovernor-general(總督,zongdu)wasthehighestrankintheprovincialadministration.TherewereeightregionalviceroysinChinaproper,eachusuallytookchargeoftwoorthreeprovinces.TheViceroyofZhili,whowasresponsiblefortheareasurroundingthecapitalBeijing,isusuallyconsideredasthemosthonorableandpowerfulviceroyamongtheeight. Bythemid-18thcentury,theQinghadsuccessfullyputouterregionssuchasInnerandOuterMongolia,TibetandXinjiangunderitscontrol.ImperialcommissionersandgarrisonsweresenttoMongoliaandTibettooverseetheiraffairs.TheseterritorieswerealsoundersupervisionofacentralgovernmentinstitutioncalledLifanYuan.QinghaiwasalsoputunderdirectcontroloftheQingcourt.Xinjiang,alsoknownasChineseTurkestan,wassubdividedintotheregionsnorthandsouthoftheTianShanmountains,alsoknowntodayasDzungariaandTarimBasinrespectively,butthepostofIliGeneralwasestablishedin1762toexerciseunifiedmilitaryandadministrativejurisdictionoverbothregions.DzungariawasfullyopenedtoHanmigrationbytheQianlongEmperorfromthebeginning.HanmigrantswereatfirstforbiddenfrompermanentlysettlingintheTarimBasinbutwerethebanwasliftedaftertheinvasionbyJahangirKhojainthe1820s.Likewise,Manchuriawasalsogovernedbymilitarygeneralsuntilitsdivisionintoprovinces,thoughsomeareasofXinjiangandNortheastChinawerelosttotheRussianEmpireinthemid-19thcentury.ManchuriawasoriginallyseparatedfromChinaproperbytheInnerWillowPalisade,aditchandembankmentplantedwithwillowsintendedtorestrictthemovementoftheHanChinese,astheareawasoff-limitstocivilianHanChineseuntilthegovernmentstartedcolonizingthearea,especiallysincethe1860s.[89] Withrespecttotheseouterregions,theQingmaintainedimperialcontrol,withtheemperoractingasMongolkhan,patronofTibetanBuddhismandprotectorofMuslims.However,QingpolicychangedwiththeestablishmentofXinjiangprovincein1884.DuringTheGreatGameera,takingadvantageoftheDunganrevoltinnorthwestChina,YaqubBeginvadedXinjiangfromCentralAsiawithsupportfromtheBritishEmpire,andmadehimselftherulerofthekingdomofKashgaria.TheQingcourtsentforcestodefeatYaqubBegandXinjiangwasreconquered,andthenthepoliticalsystemofChinaproperwasformallyappliedontoXinjiang.TheKumulKhanate,whichwasincorporatedintotheQingempireasavassalafterhelpingQingdefeattheZungharsin1757,maintaineditsstatusafterXinjiangturnedintoaprovincethroughtheendofthedynastyintheXinhaiRevolutionupuntil1930.[90]Intheearly20thcentury,BritainsentanexpeditionforcetoTibetandforcedTibetanstosignatreaty.TheQingcourtrespondedbyassertingChinesesovereigntyoverTibet,[91]resultinginthe1906Anglo-ChineseConventionsignedbetweenBritainandChina.TheBritishagreednottoannexTibetanterritoryortointerfereintheadministrationofTibet,whileChinaengagednottopermitanyotherforeignstatetointerferewiththeterritoryorinternaladministrationofTibet.[92]Furthermore,similartoXinjiangwhichwasconvertedintoaprovinceearlier,theQinggovernmentalsoturnedManchuriaintothreeprovincesintheearly20thcentury,officiallyknownasthe"ThreeNortheastProvinces",andestablishedthepostofViceroyoftheThreeNortheastProvincestooverseetheseprovinces,makingthetotalnumberofregionalviceroystonine. Society Seealso:Qingliterati,ShamanismintheQingdynasty,andIslamduringtheQingdynasty Populationgrowthandmobility Themostsignificantfactsofearlyandmid-Qingsocialhistorywasgrowthinpopulation,populationdensity,andmobility.Thepopulationin1700,accordingtowidelyacceptedestimates,wasroughly150 million,aboutwhatithadbeenunderthelateMingacenturybefore,thendoubledoverthenextcentury,andreachedaheightof450 millionontheeveoftheTaipingRebellionin1850.[93] OnereasonforthisgrowthwasthespreadofNewWorldcropslikepeanuts,sweetpotatoes,andpotatoes,whichhelpedtosustainthepeopleduringshortagesofharvestforcropssuchasriceorwheat. Thesecropscouldbegrownunderharsherconditions,andthuswerecheaperaswell,whichledtothembecomingstaplesforpoorerfarmers,decreasingthenumberofdeathsfrommalnutrition.Diseasessuchassmallpox,widespreadintheseventeenthcentury,werebroughtundercontrolbyanincreaseininoculations.Inaddition,infantdeathswerealsogreatlydecreasedduetoimprovementsinbirthingtechniquesandchildcareperformedbydoctorsandmidwivesandthroughanincreaseinmedicalbooksavailabletothepublic.[94]Governmentcampaignsdecreasedtheincidenceofinfanticide.UnlikeEurope,wherepopulationgrowthinthisperiodwasgreatestinthecities,inChinathegrowthincitiesandthelowerYangziwaslow.Thegreatestgrowthwasintheborderlandsandthehighlands,wherefarmerscouldclearlargetractsofmarshlandsandforests.[95] Thepopulationwasalsoremarkablymobile,perhapsmoresothanatanytimeinChinesehistory.Indeed,theQinggovernmentdidfarmoretoencouragemobilitythantodiscourageit.MillionsofHanChinesemigratedtoYunnanandGuizhouinthe18thcentury,andalsotoTaiwan.Aftertheconquestsofthe1750sand1760s,thecourtorganizedagriculturalcoloniesinXinjiang.Migrationmightbepermanent,forresettlement,orthemigrants(intheoryatleast)mightregardthemoveasatemporarysojourn.Thelatterincludedanincreasinglylargeandmobileworkforce.Local-origin-basedmerchantgroupsalsomovedfreely.ThismobilityalsoincludedtheorganizedmovementofQingsubjectsoverseas,largelytoSoutheasternAsia,insearchoftradeandothereconomicopportunities.[95] Despitethisrelativemobility,ManchuriawasformallyclosedtoHansettlementbytheWillowPalisade,withtheexceptionofsomebannermen.[96]Nonetheless,by1780,HanChinesehadbecome80%ofthepopulationofManchuriaevenwiththeManchurestrictions.Theregionwasconsideredoneofthelastfrontiers.[97]TherelativelylowpopulatedterritorywasvulnerableastheRussianEmpiredemandedtheAmurAnnexationannexingOuterManchuria.Inresponse,theQingofficialssuchasTepuqin(特普欽),theMilitaryGovernorofHeilongjiangin1859–1867,madeproposals(1860)toopenpartsofGuandongforChinesecivilianfarmersettlersinordertoopposefurtherpossibleannexations.[98]Inthelater19thcentury,ManchuriawasopenedupforHansettlersleadingtoamoreextensivemigration,[99]whichwascalledChuangGuandong(simplifiedChinese:闯关东;traditionalChinese:闖關東)literally"CrashingintoGuandong"withGuandongbeinganoldernameforManchuria.[100] Statusesinsociety Accordingtostatute,Qingsocietywasdividedintorelativelyclosedestates,ofwhichinmostgeneraltermstherewerefive.Apartfromtheestatesoftheofficials,thecomparativelyminusculearistocracy,andthedegree-holdingliterati,therealsoexistedamajordivisionamongordinaryChinesebetweencommonersandpeoplewithinferiorstatus.[101]Theyweredividedintotwocategories:oneofthem,thegood"commoner"people,theother"mean"peoplewhowereseenasdebasedandservile.Themajorityofthepopulationbelongedtothefirstcategoryandweredescribedasliangmin,alegaltermmeaninggoodpeople,asopposedtojianminmeaningthemean(orignoble)people.Qinglawexplicitlystatedthatthetraditionalfouroccupationalgroupsofscholars,farmers,artisansandmerchantswere"good",orhavingastatusofcommoners.Ontheotherhand,slavesorbondservants,entertainers(includingprostitutesandactors),tattooedcriminals,andthoselow-levelemployeesofgovernmentofficialswerethe"meanpeople".Meanpeoplewerelegallyinferiortocommonersandsufferedunequaltreatments,suchasbeingforbiddentotaketheimperialexamination.[102]Furthermore,suchpeoplewereusuallynotallowedtomarrywithfreecommonersandwereevenoftenrequiredtoacknowledgetheirabasementinsocietythroughactionssuchasbowing.However,throughouttheQingdynasty,theemperorandhiscourt,aswellasthebureaucracy,workedtowardsreducingthedistinctionsbetweenthedebasedandfreebutdidnotcompletelysucceedevenattheendofitserainmergingthetwoclassificationstogether.[103] Qinggentry Mainarticle:Qingliterati AlthoughtherehadbeennopowerfulhereditaryaristocracysincetheSongdynasty,thegentry(shenshi),liketheirBritishcounterparts,enjoyedimperialprivilegesandmanagedlocalaffairs.Thestatusofthisscholar-officialwasdefinedbypassingatleastthefirstlevelofcivilserviceexaminationsandholdingadegree,whichqualifiedhimtoholdimperialoffice,althoughhemightnotactuallydoso.Thegentrymembercouldlegallyweargentryrobesandcouldtalktoofficialsasequals.Officialswhohadservedforoneortwotermscouldretiretoenjoythegloryoftheirstatus.Informally,thegentrythenpresidedoverlocalsocietyandcouldusetheirconnectionstoinfluencethemagistrate,acquireland,andmaintainlargehouseholds.Thegentrythusincludednotonlymalesholdingdegreesbutalsotheirwives,descendants,someoftheirrelatives.[104] BrushcontainersymbolofelegantgentrycultureThegentryclasswasdividedintogroups.Notallwhoheldofficewereliterati,asmerchantfamiliescouldpurchasedegrees,andnotallwhopassedtheexamsfoundemploymentasofficials,sincethenumberofdegree-holderswasgreaterthanthenumberofopenings.Thegentryclassalsodifferedinthesourceandamountoftheirincome.Literatifamiliesdrewincomefromlandholding,aswellasfromlendingmoney.Officials,ofcourse,drewasalary,which,astheyearswentby,werelessandlessadequate,leadingtowidespreadrelianceon"squeeze,"irrgularpayments.Thosewhopreparedforbutfailedtheexams,likethosewhopassedbutwerenotappointedtooffice,couldbecometutorsorteachers,privatesecretariestosittingofficials,administratorsofguildsortemples,orotherpositionsthatrequiredliteracy.Othersturnedtofieldssuchasengineering,medicine,orlaw,whichbythenineteenthcenturydemandedspecializedlearning.Bythenineteenthcentury,itwasnolongershamefultobecomeanauthororpublisheroffiction.[105] TheQinggentryweremarkedasmuchbytheiraspirationtoaculturedlifestyleasbytheirlegalstatus.Theylivedmorerefinedandcomfortablelivesthanthecommonersandusedsedan-chairstotravelanysignificantdistance.Theyoftenshowedofftheirlearningbycollectingobjectssuchasscholars'stones, porcelainorpiecesofartfortheirbeauty,whichsetthemofffromlesscultivatedcommoners.[106] Qingnobility Mainarticle:RoyalandnobleranksoftheQingdynasty Familyandkinship ChenClanAncestralHall(陈家祠)builtin1894 BytheQing,thebuildingblockofsocietywaspatrilinealkinship,thatis,thelocalfamilylineagewithdescentthroughthemaleline,oftentranslatedas"clan".Ashiftinmaritalpractices,identityandloyaltyhadbegunduringtheSongdynastywhenthecivilserviceexaminationbegantoreplacenobilityandinheritanceasameansforgainingstatus.Insteadofintermarryingwithinaristocraticelitesofthesamesocialstatus,theytendedtoformmaritalallianceswithnearbyfamiliesofthesameorhigherwealth,andestablishedthelocalpeople'sinterestsasfirstandforemostwhichhelpedtoformintermarriedtownships.[107]TheNeo-Confucianideology,especiallytheCheng-ZhuthinkingfavoredbyQingsocialthought,emphasisedpatrilinealfamiliesandgenealogyinsociety.[108] Theemperorsandlocalofficialsexhortedfamiliestocompilegenealogiesinordertostabilizelocalsociety.[109]Thegenealogywasplacedintheancestralhall,whichservedasthelineage'sheadquartersandaplaceforannualancestralsacrifice.Thegenealogyrecordedthelineage'shistory,biographiesofrespectedancestors,achartofallthefamilymembersofeachgeneration,rulesforthememberstofollow,andoftencopiesoftitlecontractsforcollectivepropertyaswell.AspecificChinesecharacterappearedinthegivennameofeachmaleofeachgeneration,oftenwellintothefuture.Theselineagesclaimedtobebasedonbiologicaldescentbutwhenamemberofalineagegainedofficeorbecamewealthy,hemightuseconsiderablecreativityinselectingaprestigiousfiguretobe"foundingancestor".[110]Suchworshipwasintendedtoensurethattheancestorsremaincontentandbenevolentspirits(shen)whowouldkeepwatchoverandprotectthefamily.Laterobserversfeltthattheancestralcultfocusedonthefamilyandlineage,ratherthanonmorepublicmatterssuchascommunityandnation.[111] InnerMongolsandKhalkhaMongolsintheQingrarelyknewtheirancestorsbeyondfourgenerationsandMongoltribalsocietywasnotorganizedamongpatrilinealclans,contrarytowhatwascommonlythought,butincludedunrelatedpeopleatthebaseunitoforganization.[112]TheQingtriedbutfailedtopromotetheChineseNeo-ConfucianideologyoforganizingsocietyalongpatrimonialclansamongtheMongols.[113] Religion Furtherinformation:ReligioninChina§ QingdynastyManchurulerspresidedoveramulti-ethnicempireandtheemperor,whowasheldresponsiblefor“AllUnderHeaven”orTianXia,patronizedandtookresponsibilityforallreligionsandbeliefsystems.Theempire's“spiritualcenterofgravity"wasthe"religio-politicalstate."[114]Sincetheempirewaspartoftheorderofthecosmos,whichconferredtheMandateofHeaven,theEmperoras“SonofHeaven”wasboththeheadofthepoliticalsystemandtheheadpriestoftheStateCult.HeunitedpoliticalandspiritualrolesthatinmedievalEuropewereseparatedintotherolesofemperorandpopeandperformedtheimperialritesthatensuredpoliticalorder,prosperity,andsocialmorality.Theemperorandhisofficials,whowerehispersonalrepresentatives,tookresponsibilityallaspectsoftheempire,especiallyspirituallifeandreligiousinstitutionsandpractices.[115]Thecountymagistrate,astheemperor'spoliticalandspiritualrepresentative,madeofferingsatofficiallyrecognizedtemples,forinstancethosededicatedtotheGodofWallsandMoats,(theso-called“CityGod),andlocaldeifiedheroes.ThemagistratelecturedontheEmperor'sSacredEdicttopromotecivicmorality;hekeptclosewatchoverreligiousorganizationswhoseactionsmightthreatenthesovereigntyandreligiousprerogativeofthestate.[116] Patriarchalfamily ThebeliefsystemmostwidelypracticedamongHanChineseisoftencalledlocal,popular,orfolkreligion,andwascenteredaroundthepatriarchalfamily,themaintenanceofthemalefamilyline,andshen,orspirits.Commonpracticesincludedancestorveneration,filialpiety,localgodsandspirits.Ritesincludedmourning,funeral,burial,practices.[117]Sincetheydidnotrequireexclusiveallegiance,formsandbranchesofConfucianism,Buddhism,andDaoismwereintertwined,forinstanceinthesyncreticThreeteachings.[118]Chinesefolkreligioncombinedelementsofthethree,withlocalvariations[119]Countymagistrates,whoweregradedandpromotedontheirabilitytomaintainlocalorder,toleratedlocalsectsandevenpatronizedlocaltemplesaslongastheywereorderly,butweresuspiciousofheterodoxsectsthatdefiedstateauthorityandrejectedimperialdoctrines.Someofthesesectsindeedhadlonghistoriesofrebellion,suchastheWayofFormerHeaven,whichdrewonDaoism,andtheWhiteLotussociety,whichdrewonmillennialBuddhism.TheWhiteLotusRebellion(1796–1804)confirmedofficialsuspicionsasdidtheTaipingRebellion,whichdrewonmillennialChristianity. Manchuandimperialreligion Furtherinformation:ShamanismintheQingdynasty TheManchuimperialfamilywereespeciallyattractedbyYellowSectorGelugBuddhismthathadspreadfromTibetintoMongolia.TheFifthDalaiLama,whohadgainedpowerin1642,justbeforetheManchustookBeijing,lookedtotheQingcourtforsupport.TheKangxiandQianlongemperorspracticedthisformofTibetanBuddhismasoneoftheirhouseholdreligionsandbuilttemplesthatmadeBeijingoneofitscenters,andconstructedareplicaLhasa'sPotalaPalaceattheirsummerretreatinRehe.[120] Shamanism,themostcommonreligionamongManchus,wasaspiritualinheritancefromtheirTungusicancestorsthatsetthemofffromHanChinese.[121]StateshamanismwasimportanttotheimperialfamilybothtomaintaintheirManchuculturalidentityandtopromotetheirimperiallegitimacyamongtribesinthenortheast.[122]ImperialobligationsincludedritualsonthefirstdayofChineseNewYearatashamanicshrine(tangse).[123]PracticesinManchufamiliesincludedsacrificestotheancestors,andtheuseofshamans,oftenwomen,whowentintoatrancetoseekhealingorexorcism[124] Christianity,Judaism,andIslam Furtherinformation:JesuitChinamissions,ChineseRitescontroversy,ChristianityinChina,ProtestantmissionsinChina,IslaminChina,JudaisminChina,CatholicChurchinChina§ Qing(1644–1911)dynasty,andMedicalmissionsinChina TheAbrahamicreligionshadarrivedfromWesternAsiaasearlyastheTangdynastybuttheirinsistencethattheyshouldbepracticedtotheexclusionofotherreligionsmadethemlessadaptablethanBuddhism,whichhadquicklybeenacceptedasnative.IslampredominatedinCentralAsianareasoftheempire,whileJudaismandChristianitywerepracticedinwell-establishedbutself-containedcommunities.[125] SeveralhundredCatholicmissionariesarrivedfromthelateMingperioduntiltheproscriptionofChristianityin1724.TheJesuitsadaptedtoChineseexpectations,evangelizedfromthetopdown,adoptedtherobesandlifestylesofliterati,becomingproficientintheConfucianclassics,anddidnotchallengeChinesemoralvalues,suchasancestorveneration.TheyprovedtheirvaluetotheearlyManchuemperorswiththeirworkingunnery,cartography,andastronomy,butfelloutoffavorforatimeuntiltheKangxiEmperor's1692edictoftoleration.[126]Inthecountryside,thenewlyarrivedDominicanandFranciscanclericsestablishedruralcommunitiesthatadaptedtolocalfolkreligiouspracticesbyemphasizinghealing,festivals,andholydaysratherthansacramentsanddoctrine.Bythebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury,aspectrumofChristianbelievershadestablishedcommunities.[127]In1724,theYongzhengEmperor(1678–1735)announcedthatChristianitywasa"heterodoxteaching"andhenceproscribed.[128]SincetheEuropeanCatholicmissionarieskeptcontrolintheirownhandsandhadnotallowedthecreationofanativeclergy,however,thenumberofCatholicswouldgrowmorerapidlyafter1724andlocalcommunitiescouldsettheirownrulesandstandards.In1811,ChristianreligiousactivitieswerefurthercriminalizedbytheJiaqingEmperor(1760–1820).[129]TheimperialbanwasliftedbyTreatyin1846.[130] ThefirstProtestantmissionarytoChinawasRobertMorrison(1782–1834)oftheLondonMissionarySociety(LMS),[131]whoarrivedatCantononSeptember 6,1807.HecompletedatranslationoftheentireBiblein1819.[132]LiangAfa(1789–1855),aMorrison-trainedChineseconvert,branchedouttheevangelizationmissionininnerChina.[133][134]ThetwoOpiumWars(1839–1860)markedthewatershedofProtestantChristianmissions.[128]The1842TreatyofNanjing,[135]theAmericantreatyandtheFrenchtreatysignedin1844,[136]andthe1858TreatyofTianjin,[128]distinguishedChristianityfromthelocalreligionsandgranteditprotectedstatus.[137]Chinesepopularcults,suchastheWhiteLotusandtheEightTrigram,presentedthemselvesasChristiantosharethisprotection.[138] Inthelate1840sHongXiuquanreadMorrison'sChineseBible,aswellasLiangAfa'sevangelisticpamphlet,andannouncedtohisfollowersthatChristianityinfacthadbeenthereligionofancientChinabeforeConfuciusandhisfollowersdroveitout.[139]HeformedtheTaipingMovement,whichemergedinSouthChinaasa"collusionoftheChinesetraditionofmillenarianrebellionandChristianmessianism","apocalypticrevolution,Christianity,and'communistutopianism'".[140] After1860,enforcementofthetreatiesallowedmissionariestospreadtheirevangelizationeffortsoutsideTreatyPorts.Theirpresencecreatedculturalandpoliticalopposition.HistorianJohnK.Fairbankobservedthat"[t]othescholar-gentry,Christianmissionarieswereforeignsubversives,whoseimmoralconductandteachingwerebackedbygunboats".[141]Inthenextdecades,therewere800someconflictsbetweenvillageChristiansandnon-Christians(jiao'an)mostlyaboutnon-religiousissues,suchaslandrightsorlocaltaxes,butreligiousconflictoftenbehindsuchcases.[142]Inthesummerof1900,asforeignpowerscontemplatedthedivisionofChina,villageyouths,knownasBoxers,whopracticedChinesemartialartsandspiritualpractices,reactedagainstWesternpowerandchurches,attackedandmurderedChineseChristiansandforeignmissionariesintheBoxerUprising.Theimperialistpowersonceagaininvadedandimposedasubstantialindemnity.TheBeijinggovernmentreactedbyimplementingsubstantialfiscalandadministrativereformsbutthisdefeatconvincedmanyamongtheeducatedelitesthatpopularreligionwasanobstacletoChina'sdevelopmentasamodernnation,andsometurnedtoChristianityasaspiritualtooltobuildone.[143] By1900,therewereabout1,400CatholicpriestsandnunsinChinaservingnearly1 millionCatholics.Over3,000Protestantmissionarieswereactiveamongthe250,000ProtestantChristiansinChina.[144]Westernmedicalmissionariesestablishedclinicsandhospitals,andledmedicaltraininginChina.[145]Missionariesbeganestablishingnursetrainingschoolsinthelate1880s,butnursingofsickmenbywomenwasrejectedbylocaltradition,sothenumberofstudentswassmalluntilthe1930s.[146] Economy Silvercoin:1yuan/dollarXuantong3rdyear-1911Chopmark XiánFēngTōngBǎo(咸豐通寶)1850–1861Qingdynastycopper(brass)cashcoinMainarticle:EconomichistoryofChinabefore1912§ Qingdynasty(1644–1912) Bytheendofthe17thcentury,theChineseeconomyhadrecoveredfromthedevastationcausedbythewarsinwhichtheMingdynastywereoverthrown,andtheresultingbreakdownoforder.[147]Inthefollowingcentury,marketscontinuedtoexpandasinthelateMingperiod,butwithmoretradebetweenregions,agreaterdependenceonoverseasmarketsandagreatlyincreasedpopulation.[148]Bytheendofthe18thcenturythepopulationhadrisento300 millionfromapproximately150 millionduringthelateMingdynasty.Thedramaticriseinpopulationwasduetoseveralreasons,includingthelongperiodofpeaceandstabilityinthe18thcenturyandtheimportofnewcropsChinareceivedfromtheAmericas,includingpeanuts,sweetpotatoesandmaize.NewspeciesofricefromSoutheastAsialedtoahugeincreaseinproduction.MerchantguildsproliferatedinallofthegrowingChinesecitiesandoftenacquiredgreatsocialandevenpoliticalinfluence.Richmerchantswithofficialconnectionsbuiltuphugefortunesandpatronizedliterature,theaterandthearts.Textileandhandicraftproductionboomed.[149] ThegovernmentbroadenedlandownershipbyreturninglandthathadbeensoldtolargelandownersinthelateMingperiodbyfamiliesunabletopaythelandtax.[150]Togivepeoplemoreincentivestoparticipateinthemarket,theyreducedthetaxburdenincomparisonwiththelateMing,andreplacedthecorvéesystemwithaheadtaxusedtohirelaborers.[151]TheadministrationoftheGrandCanalwasmademoreefficient,andtransportopenedtoprivatemerchants.[152]Asystemofmonitoringgrainpriceseliminatedsevereshortages,andenabledthepriceofricetoriseslowlyandsmoothlythroughthe18thcentury.[153]Waryofthepowerofwealthymerchants,Qingrulerslimitedtheirtradinglicensesandusuallyrefusedthempermissiontoopennewmines,exceptinpoorareas.[154]Theserestrictionsondomesticresourceexploration,aswellasonforeigntrade,areheldbysomescholarsasacauseoftheGreatDivergence,bywhichtheWesternworldovertookChinaeconomically.[citationneeded] DuringtheMing–Qingperiod(1368–1911)thebiggestdevelopmentintheChineseeconomywasitstransitionfromacommandtoamarketeconomy,thelatterbecomingincreasinglymorepervasivethroughouttheQing'srule.[111]Fromroughly1550to1800Chinaproperexperiencedasecondcommercialrevolution,developingnaturallyfromthefirstcommercialrevolutionoftheSongperiodwhichsawtheemergenceoflong-distanceinter-regionaltradeofluxurygoods.Duringthesecondcommercialrevolution,forthefirsttime,alargepercentageoffarminghouseholdsbeganproducingcropsforsaleinthelocalandnationalmarketsratherthanfortheirownconsumptionorbarterinthetraditionaleconomy.Surpluscropswereplacedontothenationalmarketforsale,integratingfarmersintothecommercialeconomyfromthegroundup.Thisnaturallyledtoregionsspecializingincertaincash-cropsforexportasChina'seconomybecameincreasinglyreliantoninter-regionaltradeofbulkstaplegoodssuchascotton,grain,beans,vegetableoils,forestproducts,animalproducts,andfertilizer.[103] Silver SilverenteredinlargequantitiesfromminesintheNewWorldaftertheSpanishconqueredthePhilippinesinthe1570s.There-openingofthesoutheastcoast,whichhadbeenclosedinthelate17thcentury,quicklyrevivedtrade,whichexpandedat4%perannumthroughoutthelatterpartofthe18thcentury.[155]Chinacontinuedtoexporttea,silkandmanufactures,creatingalarge,favorabletradebalancewiththeWest.[149]Theresultingexpansionofthemoneysupplysupportedcompetitiveandstablemarkets.[156]Duringthemid-MingChinahadgraduallyshiftedtosilverasthestandardcurrencyforlargescaletransactionsandbythelateKangxireigntheassessmentandcollectionofthelandtaxwasdoneinsilver.Landlordsbeganonlyacceptingrentpaymentsinsilverratherthanincropsthemselves,whichinturnincentivizedfarmerstoproducecropsforsaleinlocalandnationalmarketsratherthanfortheirownpersonalconsumptionorbarter.[103]Unlikethecoppercoins,qianorcash,usedmainlyforsmallertransactions,silverwasnotreliablymintedintoacoinbutratherwastradedinunitsofweight:theliangortael,whichequaledroughly1.3ouncesofsilver.Athird-partyhadtobebroughtintoassesstheweightandpurityofthesilver,resultinginanextra"meltagefee"addedontothepriceoftransaction.Furthermore,sincethe"meltagefee"wasunregulateduntilthereignoftheYongzhengemperoritwasthesourceofmuchcorruptionateachlevelofthebureaucracy.TheYongzhengemperorcrackeddownonthecorrupt"meltagefees,"legalizingandregulatingthemsothattheycouldbecollectedasatax,"returningmeltagefeestothepubliccoffer."Fromthisnewlyincreasedpubliccoffer,theYongzhengemperorincreasedthesalariesoftheofficialswhocollectedthem,furtherlegitimizingsilverasthestandardcurrencyoftheQingeconomy.[111] Urbanizationandtheproliferationofmarket-towns ThesecondcommercialrevolutionalsohadaprofoundeffectonthedispersionoftheQingpopulace.UpuntilthelateMingthereexistedastarkcontrastbetweentheruralcountrysideandcitymetropolesandveryfewmid-sizedcitiesexisted.Thiswasduetothefactthatextractionofsurpluscropsfromthecountrysidewastraditionallydonebythestateandnotcommercialorganizations.However,ascommercializationexpandedexponentiallyinthelate-Mingandearly-Qing,mid-sizedcitiesbeganpoppinguptodirecttheflowofdomestic,commercialtrade.Sometownsofthisnaturehadsuchalargevolumeoftradeandmerchantsflowingthroughthemthattheydevelopedintofull-fledgedmarket-towns.Someofthesemoreactivemarket-townsevendevelopedintosmall-citiesandbecamehometothenewrisingmerchant-class.[103]Theproliferationofthesemid-sizedcitieswasonlymadepossiblebyadvancementsinlong-distancetransportationandmethodsofcommunication.AsmoreandmoreChinese-citizensweretravellingthecountryconductingtradetheyincreasinglyfoundthemselvesinafar-awayplaceneedingaplacetostay,inresponsethemarketsawtheexpansionofguildhallstohousethesemerchants.[111] Puankhequa(1714–1788).ChinesemerchantandmemberofaCohongfamily. Full-fledgedtradeguildsemerged,which,amongotherthings,issuedregulatorycodesandpriceschedules,andprovidedaplacefortravellingmerchantstostayandconducttheirbusiness.Alongwiththehuiguantradeguilds,guildhallsdedicatedtomorespecificprofessions,gongsuo,begantoappearandtocontrolcommercialcraftorartisanalindustriessuchascarpentry,weaving,banking,andmedicine.[111]Bythenineteenthcenturyguildhallsworkedtotransformurbanareasintocosmopolitan,multi-culturalhubs,stagedtheatreperformancesopentogeneralpublic,developedrealestatebypoolingfundstogetherinthestyleofatrust,andsomeevenfacilitatedthedevelopmentofsocialservicessuchasmaintainingstreets,watersupply,andsewagefacilities.[103] TradewiththeWest In1685theKangxiemperorlegalizedprivatemaritimetradealongthecoast,establishingaseriesofcustomsstationsinmajorportcities.ThecustomsstationatCantonbecamebyfarthemostactiveinforeigntradeandbythelateKangxireignmorethanfortymercantilehousesspecializingintradewiththeWesthadappeared.TheYongzhengemperormadeaparentcorporationcomprisingthosefortyindividualhousesin1725knownastheCohongsystem.Firmlyestablishedby1757,theCantonCohongwasanassociationofthirteenbusinessfirmsthathadbeenawardedexclusiverightstoconducttradewithWesternmerchantsinCanton.UntilitsabolitionaftertheOpiumWarin1842,theCantonCohongsystemwastheonlypermittedavenueofWesterntradeintoChina,andthusbecameaboominghubofinternationaltradebytheearlyeighteenthcentury.[111]BytheeighteenthcenturythemostsignificantexportChinahadwastea.BritishdemandforteaincreasedexponentiallyupuntiltheyfiguredouthowtogrowitforthemselvesinthehillsofnorthernIndiainthe1880s.BytheendoftheeighteenthcenturyteaexportsgoingthroughtheCantonCohongsystemamountedtoone-tenthoftherevenuefromtaxescollectedfromtheBritishandnearlytheentirerevenueoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanyanduntiltheearlynineteenthcenturyteacomprisedninetypercentofexportsleavingCanton.[111] Scienceandtechnology Mainarticle:HistoryofscienceandtechnologyinChina Chinesescholars,courtacademies,andlocalofficialscarriedonlateMingdynastystrengthsinastronomy,mathematics,andgeography,aswellastechnologiesinceramics,metallurgy,watertransport,printing.ContrarytostereotypesinsomeWesternwriting,16thand17thcenturyQingdynastyofficialsandliteratieagerlyexploredthetechnologyandscienceintroducedbyJesuitmissionaries.ManchuleadersemployedJesuitstousecannonandgunpowdertogreateffectintheconquestofChina,andthecourtsponsoredtheirresearchinastronomy.Theaimoftheseefforts,however,wastoreformandimproveinheritedscienceandtechnology,nottoreplaceit.[157]ScientificknowledgeadvancedduringtheQing,buttherewasnotachangeinthewaythisknowledgewasorganizedorthewayscientificevidencewasdefinedoritstruthtested.Thosewhostudiedthephysicaluniversesharedtheirfindingswitheachotherandidentifiedthemselvesasmenofscience,buttheydidnothaveaseparateandindependentprofessionalrolewithitsowntrainingandadvancement.Theywerestillliterati.[158] TheOpiumWars,however,demonstratedthepowerofsteamengineandmilitarytechnologythathadonlyrecentlybeenputintopracticeintheWest.DuringtheSelf-StrengtheningMovementofthe1860sand1870sConfucianofficialsinseveralcoastalprovincesestablishedanindustrialbaseinmilitarytechnology.TheintroductionofrailroadsintoChinaraisedquestionsthatweremorepoliticalthantechnological.ABritishcompanybuiltthe19 km(12 mi)Shanghai—Woosunglinein1876,obtainingthelandunderfalsepretenses,anditwassoontornup.Courtofficialsfearedlocalpublicopinionandthatrailwayswouldhelpinvaders,harmfarmlands,andobstructfengshui.[159]TokeepdevelopmentinChinesehands,theQinggovernmentborrowed34 billiontaelsofsilverfromforeignlendersforrailwayconstructionbetween1894and1911.Aslateas1900,only470 km(292 mi)wereinoperation,withafurther6,400 km(4,000 mi)intheplanningstage.Finally,8,400 km(5,200 mi)ofrailwaywascompleted.TheBritishandFrenchafter1905werefinallyabletoopenlinestoBurmaandVietnam.[160] Protestantmissionariesbythe1830stranslatedandprintedWesternscienceandmedicaltextbooks.Thetextbooksfoundhomesintherapidlyenlargingnetworkofmissionaryschools,anduniversities.ThetextbooksopenedlearningopenpossibilitiesforthesmallnumberofChinesestudentsinterestedinscience,andaverysmallnumberinterestedintechnology.After1900,JapanhadagreaterroleinbringingmodernscienceandtechnologytoChineseaudiencesbuteventhentheyreachedchieflythechildrenoftherichlandowninggentry,whoseldomengagedinindustrialcareers.[161] Artsandculture Seealso:Chineseart§ LateimperialChina(1368–1911),Chineseliterature§ Classicalfictionanddrama,ClassicalChinesepoetry§ Historyanddevelopment,andQingpoetryPine,PlumandCranes,1759,byShenQuan(1682–1760). UndertheQing,inheritedformsofartflourishedandinnovationsoccurredatmanylevelsandinmanytypes.Highlevelsofliteracy,asuccessfulpublishingindustry,prosperouscities,andtheConfucianemphasisoncultivationallfedalivelyandcreativesetofculturalfields. Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,nationalartisticandculturalworldshadbeguntocometotermswiththecosmopolitancultureoftheWestandJapan.ThedecisiontostaywithinoldformsorwelcomeWesternmodelswasnowaconsciouschoiceratherthananunchallengedacceptanceoftradition.ClassicallytrainedConfucianscholarssuchasLiangQichaoandWangGuoweireadwidelyandbrokeaestheticandcriticalgroundlatercultivatedintheNewCultureMovement. Finearts ADaoguangperiodPekingglassvase.Coloredin"ImperialYellow",duetoitsassociationwiththeQing. TheQingemperorsweregenerallyadeptatpoetryandoftenskilledinpainting,andofferedtheirpatronagetoConfucianculture.TheKangxiandQianlongEmperors,forinstance,embracedChinesetraditionsbothtocontrolthemandtoproclaimtheirownlegitimacy.TheKangxiEmperorsponsoredthePeiwenYunfu,arhymedictionarypublishedin1711,andtheKangxiDictionarypublishedin1716,whichremainstothisdayanauthoritativereference.TheQianlongEmperorsponsoredthelargestcollectionofwritingsinChinesehistory,theSikuQuanshu,completedin1782.CourtpaintersmadenewversionsoftheSongmasterpiece,ZhangZeduan'sAlongtheRiverDuringtheQingmingFestival,whosedepictionofaprosperousandhappyrealmdemonstratedthebeneficenceoftheemperor.Theemperorsundertooktoursofthesouthandcommissionedmonumentalscrollstodepictthegrandeuroftheoccasion.[162]ImperialpatronagealsoencouragedtheindustrialproductionofceramicsandChineseexportporcelain.PekingglasswarebecamepopularafterEuropeanglassmakingprocesseswereintroducedbyJesuitstoBeijing.[163][164] Yetthemostimpressiveaestheticworksweredoneamongthescholarsandurbanelite.Calligraphyandpainting[165]remainedacentralinteresttobothcourtpaintersandscholar-gentrywhoconsideredthefourartspartoftheirculturalidentityandsocialstanding.[166]ThepaintingoftheearlyyearsofthedynastyincludedsuchpaintersastheorthodoxFourWangsandtheindividualistsBadaShanren(1626–1705)andShitao(1641–1707).ThenineteenthcenturysawsuchinnovationsastheShanghaiSchoolandtheLingnanSchool,[167]whichusedthetechnicalskillsoftraditiontosetthestageformodernpainting. Traditionallearningandliterature Traditionallearningflourished,especiallyamongMingloyalistssuchasDaiZhenandGuYanwu,butscholarsintheschoolofevidentiallearningmadeinnovationsinskepticaltextualscholarship.Scholar-bureaucrats,includingLinZexuandWeiYuan,developedaschoolofpracticalstatecraftwhichrootedbureaucraticreformandrestructuringinclassicalphilosophy. JadebookoftheQianlongperiodondisplayattheBritishMuseum Philosophy[168]andliteraturegrewtonewheightsintheQingperiod.Poetrycontinuedasamarkofthecultivatedgentleman,butwomenwroteinlargerandlargernumbersandpoetscamefromallwalksoflife.ThepoetryoftheQingdynastyisalivelyfieldofresearch,beingstudied(alongwiththepoetryoftheMingdynasty)foritsassociationwithChineseopera,developmentaltrendsofClassicalChinesepoetry,thetransitiontoagreaterroleforvernacularlanguage,andforpoetrybywomen.TheQingdynastywasaperiodofliteraryeditingandcriticism,andmanyofthemodernpopularversionsofClassicalChinesepoemsweretransmittedthroughQingdynastyanthologies,suchastheQuanTangshiandtheThreeHundredTangPoems.Althoughfictiondidnothavetheprestigeofpoetry,novelsflourished.PuSonglingbroughttheshortstorytoanewlevelinhisStrangeTalesfromaChineseStudio,publishedinthemid-18thcentury,andShenFudemonstratedthecharmoftheinformalmemoirinSixChaptersofaFloatingLife,writtenintheearly19thcenturybutpublishedonlyin1877.TheartofthenovelreachedapinnacleinCaoXueqin'sDreamoftheRedChamber,butitscombinationofsocialcommentaryandpsychologicalinsightwereechoedinhighlyskillednovelssuchasWuJingzi'sRulinwaishi(1750)andLiRuzhen'sFlowersintheMirror(1827).[169]LandscapebyWangGai,1694 Cuisine Cuisinearousedaculturalprideintherichnessofalongandvariedpast.Thegentlemangourmet,suchasYuanMei,appliedaestheticstandardstotheartofcooking,eating,andappreciationofteaatatimewhenNewWorldcropsandproductsenteredeverydaylife.Yuan'sSuiyuanShidanexpoundedculinaryaestheticsandtheory,alongwitharangeofrecipes.TheManchu–HanImperialFeastoriginatedatthecourt.Althoughthisbanquetwasprobablynevercommon,itreflectedanappreciationofManchuculinarycustoms.[170]Nevertheless,culinarytraditionalistssuchasYuanMeilambastedtheopulenceoftheManchuHanFeast.Yuanwrotethatthefeastwascausedinpartbythe"vulgarhabitsofbadchefs"andthat"displaysthistriteareusefulonlyforwelcomingnewrelationsthroughone'sgatesorwhenthebosscomestovisit".(皆惡廚陋習。

只可用之於新親上門，上司入境)[171] Historiographyandmemory Nationalism After1912,writers,historiansandscholarsinChinaandabroadgenerallydeprecatedthefailuresofthelateimperialsystem.However,inthe21stcentury,afavorableviewhasemergedinpopularculture.BuildingprideinChinesehistory,nationalistshaveportrayedImperialChinaasbenevolent,strongandmoreadvancedthantheWest.TheyblameuglywarsanddiplomaticcontroversiesonimperialistexploitationbyWesternnationsandJapan.AlthoughofficiallystillcommunistandMaoist,inpracticeChina'srulershaveusedthisgrassrootssettlementtoproclaimthattheircurrentpoliciesarerestoringChina'shistoricalglory.[172][173]ChineseCommunistPartyGeneralSecretaryXiJinpinghassoughtparitybetweenBeijingandWashingtonandpromisedtorestoreChinatoitshistoricalglory.[174] NewQingHistory Mainarticle:NewQingHistory TheNewQingHistoryisarevisionisthistoriographicaltrendstartinginthemid-1990semphasizingtheManchunatureofthedynasty.EarlierhistorianshademphasizedthepowerofHanChineseto"sinicize"theirconquerors,thatis,toassimilateandmakethemChineseintheirthoughtandinstitutions.Inthe1980sandearly1990s,AmericanscholarsbegantolearnManchuandtookadvantageofnewlyopenedChinese-andManchu-languagedocumentsinthearchives.[175]ThisresearchfoundthattheManchurulersmanipulatedtheirsubjectsandfromthe1630sthroughatleastthe18thcentury,emperorsdevelopedasenseofManchuidentityandusedCentralAsianmodelsofruleasmuchastheydidConfucianones.[176]AccordingtothenewschooltheManchurulingclassregarded"China"asonlyapart,althoughaveryimportantpart,ofamuchwiderempirethatextendedintotheInnerAsianterritoriesofMongolia,Tibet,ManchuriaandXinjiang.[175] Ping-tiHocriticizedthenewapproachforexaggeratingtheManchucharacterofthedynastyandarguedforthesinificationofitsrule.[177]SomescholarsinChinaaccusedtheAmericangroupofimposingAmericanconcernswithraceandidentityorevenofimperialistmisunderstandingtoweakenChina.StillothersinChinaagreethatthisscholarshiphasopenednewvistasforthestudyofQinghistory.[178] The"NewQingHistory"isnotrelatedtotheNewQingHistory,amulti-volumehistoryoftheQingdynastythatwasauthorizedbytheChineseStateCouncilin2003.[179] Seealso Chinaportal Historyportal Anti-Qingsentiment Centuryofhumiliation ChristianityinChina CostumesofQingofficials EminentChineseoftheCh'ingPeriod ForeignrelationsoftheQingdynasty HistoryofChina HenanEducationOfficialGazette ImperialChineseharemsystem InternationalrelationsoftheGreatPowers(1814–1919) IslamduringtheQingdynasty ListofemperorsoftheQingdynasty ListofrebellionsinChina ListofrecipientsoftributefromChina ListofChinesemonarchs ManchuriaunderQingrule MilitaryhistoryofChinabefore1911 MongoliaunderQingrule NamesoftheQingdynasty NewQingHistory Qingemperors'familytree QingdynastyinInnerAsia Qingofficialheadwear TheRiseandFallofQingDynasty RoyalandnobleranksoftheQingdynasty TaiwanunderQingrule TibetunderQingrule TimelineofChinesehistory Timelineoflateanti-Qingrebellions XinjiangunderQingrule Notes ^Chinese:盛京;pinyin:ShèngJīng;Manchu:ᠮᡠᡴ᠋ᡩᡝᠨ; Möllendorff:Mukden; Abkai:Mukden,Capitalafter1625forLaterJin;secondarycapitalafter1644. ^Chinese:北京;pinyin:Běijīng;Manchu:ᠪᡝᡤᡳᠩ; Möllendorff:Beging; Abkai:Beging,Primarycapitalafterwards. ^Chinese:六部;pinyin:lìubù ^traditionalChinese:尚書;simplifiedChinese:尚书;pinyin:shàngshū;Manchu:ᠠᠯᡳᡥᠠᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨ; Möllendorff:alihaamban; Abkai:alihaamban ^Chinese:侍郎;pinyin:shìláng;Manchu:ᠠᠰᡥᠠᠨ ᡳᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨ; Möllendorff:ashaniamban; Abkai:ashan-iamban ^traditionalChinese:內閣;simplifiedChinese:内阁;pinyin:nèigé;Manchu:ᡩᠣᡵᡤᡳᠶᠠᠮᡠᠨ; Möllendorff:dorgiyamun; Abkai:dorgiyamun ^traditionalChinese:軍機處;simplifiedChinese:军机处;pinyin:jūnjīchù;Manchu:ᠴᠣᡠ᠋ᡥᠠᡳᠨᠠᠰᡥᡡᠨ ᡳᠪᠠ; Möllendorff:coohainashūniba; Abkai:qouhainashvn-iba ^traditionalChinese:軍機大臣;simplifiedChinese:军机大臣;pinyin:jūnjīdàchén ^Chinese:包衣;pinyin:bāoyī;Manchu:ᠪᠣᡠ᠋ᡳ; Möllendorff:booi; Abkai:boui References Citations ^Elliott(2001),pp. 290–291. ^UlrichTheobald(19March2016)."QingPeriod-Society,Customs,andReligion".www.chinaknowledge.de.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6February2022.Retrieved14February2022. ^abcTaagepera,Rein(September1997)."ExpansionandContractionPatternsofLargePolities:ContextforRussia"(PDF).InternationalStudiesQuarterly.41(3):500.doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053.JSTOR 2600793.Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon7July2020.Retrieved24July2020. ^Yamamuro,Shin'ichi(2006).ManchuriaUnderJapaneseDomination.TranslatedbyJ.A.Fogel.UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.p. 246.ISBN 9780812239126. ^Crossley(1997),pp. 212–213. ^Elliott(2001),p.402,note118. ^Dong,Shaoxin(2020),"TheTartarsinEuropeanMissionaryWritingsoftheSeventeenthCentury",inWeststeijn,Thijs(ed.),ForeignDevilsandPhilosophersCulturalEncountersbetweentheChinese,theDutch,andOtherEuropeans,1590-1800,Leiden:Brill,pp. 82–83,ISBN 9789004418929,archivedfromtheoriginalon8May2021,retrieved14March2021 ^Zhao(2006),pp. 4,7–10,12–14and24n.4. ^Bilik,Naran."NamesHaveMemories:History,SemanticIdentityandConflictinMongolianandChineseLanguageUse."InnerAsia9.1(2007):23–39.p.34 ^"Qingdynasty".EncyclopediaBritannica.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9March2018.Retrieved15February2018. ^TheMilitaryEngineer,Volume40,p.580. ^Ebrey(2010),p. 220. ^Crossley(1997),p. 3. ^Ebrey&Walthall(2013),p. 271. ^WakemanJr(1985),p. 24. ^Swope,KennethM.(2014).TheMilitaryCollapseofChina'sMingDynasty,1618–44(illustrated ed.).Routledge.p. 16.ISBN 978-1134462094.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11March2021.Retrieved19November2020. ^Mair,VictorH.;Chen,Sanping;Wood,Frances(2013).ChineseLives:ThePeopleWhoMadeaCivilization(illustrated ed.).Thames&Hudson.ISBN 978-0500771471.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11March2021.Retrieved19November2020. ^abEbrey(2010),pp. 220–224. ^BernardHung-KayLuk,AmirHarrak-Contactsbetweencultures,Volume4,p.25 ^Rawski(1991),p. 177. ^Tumenjalafunjecenakū:ManchustudiesinhonourofGiovanniStaryByGiovanniStary,AlessandraPozzi,JuhaAnteroJanhunen,MichaelWeiers ^Li(2002),pp. 60–62.sfnperror:notarget:CITEREFLi2002(help) ^Li(2002),p. 65.sfnperror:notarget:CITEREFLi2002(help) ^"China".EncyclopediaBritannica.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27July2019.Retrieved21July2019. ^TheexactfigureofLiZicheng'sforcesatthebattleofShanhaiPassisdisputed.Someprimarysources,suchastheofficialQingandMingcourthistories(Chinese:《清世祖實錄》,《明史》),cite200,000. ^Spence(2012),p. 32. ^DiCosmo(2007),p. 6. ^Naquin&Rawski(1987),p. 141. ^DiCosmo(2007),p. 23. ^DiCosmo(2007),p. 9. ^Rawski(1991),p. 175. ^DiCosmo(2007),p. 7. ^Spence(1990),p. 41. 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Furtherreading Bickers,Robert(2011).TheScrambleforChina:ForeignDevilsintheQingEmpire,1832–1914.Penguin.ISBN 978-0-7139-9749-1. Cotterell,Arthur(2007).TheImperialCapitalsofChina–AnInsideViewoftheCelestialEmpire.London:Pimlico.ISBN 978-1-84595-009-5. Dunnell,RuthW.;Elliott,MarkC.;Foret,Philippe;et al.,eds.(2004).NewQingImperialHistory:TheMakingofInnerAsianEmpireatQingChengde.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-134-36222-6. Esherick,Joseph;Kayalı,Hasan;VanYoung,Eric,eds.(2006).EmpiretoNation:HistoricalPerspectivesontheMakingoftheModernWorld.Rowman&Littlefield.ISBN 978-0-7425-4031-6. Fairbank,JohnK.;Liu,Kwang-Ching,eds.(1980).TheCambridgeHistoryofChina,Volume11:LateCh'ing1800–1911,Part2.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-22029-3. Leung,EdwinPak-wah(1992).HistoricaldictionaryofrevolutionaryChina,1839–1976.ISBN 9780313264573. Leung,EdwinPak-wah(2002).PoliticalLeadersofModernChina:ABiographicalDictionary. Morse,HoseaBallou.TheinternationalrelationsoftheChineseempire Vol.I:Theperiodofconflict,1834-1860(1910) Vol.II:Theperiodofsubmission,1861-1893(1918) Vol.III:Theperiodofsubjection,1894-1911(1918) Owen,Stephen(1997)."TheQingDynasty:PeriodIntroduction"(PDF).InOwen,Stephen(ed.).AnAnthologyofChineseLiterature:Beginningsto1911.NewYork:W.W.Norton.pp. 909–914.Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon3March2016. Paludan,Ann(1998).ChronicleoftheChineseEmperors.London:Thames&Hudson.ISBN 978-0-500-05090-3. Peterson,WillardJ.,ed.(2002).TheCambridgeHistoryofChina,Volume9:TheCh'ingEmpireto1800,PartOne.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-24334-6. Setzekorn,Eric(2015)."ChineseImperialism,EthnicCleansing,andMilitaryHistory,1850-1877".JournalofChineseMilitaryHistory.4(1):80–100.doi:10.1163/22127453-12341278. Smith,RichardJoseph(2015).TheQingDynastyandTraditionalChineseCulture.RowmanandLittlefield.ISBN 978-1-4422-2193-2. Spence,Jonathan(1997).God'sChineseSon:TheTaipingHeavenlyKingdomofHongXiuquan.NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company.ISBN 978-0-393-31556-1. Stanford,Edward(1917).AtlasoftheChineseEmpire,containingseparatemapsoftheeighteenprovincesofChina(2nd ed.).Legiblecolormaps. Struve,LynnA.(2004).TheQingFormationinWorld-HistoricalTime.HarvardUniversityAsiaCenter.ISBN 978-0-674-01399-5. Waley-Cohen,Joanna(2006).ThecultureofwarinChina:empireandthemilitaryundertheQingdynasty.I.B.Tauris.ISBN 978-1-84511-159-5. Woo,X.L.(2002).EmpressdowagerCixi:China'slastdynastyandthelongreignofaformidableconcubine:legendsandlivesduringthedecliningdaysoftheQingdynasty.AlgoraPublishing.ISBN 978-1-892941-88-6. Zhao,Gang(2013).TheQingOpeningtotheOcean:ChineseMaritimePolicies,1684–1757.UniversityofHawaiiPress.ISBN 978-0-8248-3643-6. Primarysourcecollectionsandreference Brunnert,I.S.;Gagelstrom,V.V.(1912).PresentDayPoliticalOrganizationofChina.TranslatedbyEdwardEugeneMoran.Shanghai:KellyandWalsh.Listsbureaucraticstructureandoffices,withstandardtranslations. MacNair,HarleyFarnsworth,ed.(1923).ModernChineseHistorySelectedReadings.Shanghai:CommercialPress;startsin1842{{citebook}}:CS1maint:postscript(link) TheChinayearbook.1914. Historiography Cohen,Paul(1984).DiscoveringHistoryinChina:AmericanHistoricalWritingontheRecentChinesePast.ReprintedwithnewIntroduction,2010.NewYork,London:ColumbiaUniversityPress.ISBN 023152546X.Chapterson:Theproblemwith"China'sresponsetotheWest"—Movingbeyond"Traditionandmodernity"—Imperialism:realityormyth?--TowardaChina-centeredhistoryofChina. Ho,Ping-Ti(1967)."TheSignificanceoftheCh'ingPeriodinChineseHistory".TheJournalofAsianStudies.26(2):189–195.doi:10.2307/2051924.JSTOR 2051924.S2CID 162396785.Archivedfromtheoriginalon14February2022.Retrieved5December2019. ——(1998)."InDefenseofSinicization:ARebuttalofEvelynRawski's'ReenvisioningtheQing'".TheJournalofAsianStudies.57(1):123–155.doi:10.2307/2659026.JSTOR 2659026. Hsieh,Winston(1975).ChineseHistoriographyontheRevolutionof1911:ACriticalSurveyandaSelectedBibliography.Stanford,CA:HooverInstitutionPress,StanfordUniversity.ISBN 0817933417.Stillusefulfordiscussionofissues,schoolsofinterpretation,andpublishedsources. Miller,H.Lyman(2000)."TheLateImperialChineseState".InShambaugh,DavidL.(ed.).TheModernChineseState.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 15–36.ISBN 0521772346.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20January2021.Retrieved26July2020. Rawski,EvelynS."TheQinginHistoriographicalDialogue."LateImperialChina(2016)37#1pp1–4summaryonline Newby,L.J.(2011)."China:PaxManjurica".JournalforEighteenth-CenturyStudies.34(4):557–563.doi:10.1111/j.1754-0208.2011.00454.x.Discussesdevelopmentsinscholarshipon18thcenturyhistorypublishedafter2000. Rawski,EvelynS.(1996)."ReenvisioningtheQing:TheSignificanceoftheQingPeriodinChineseHistory".TheJournalofAsianStudies.55(4):829–850.doi:10.2307/2646525.JSTOR 2646525. Sivin,Nathan(1988)."ScienceandmedicineinimperialChina—Thestateofthefield".JournalofAsianStudies.47(1):41–90.doi:10.2307/2056359.JSTOR 2056359.PMID 11617269. *Waley-Cohen,Joanna(2004)."TheNewQingHistory".RadicalHistoryReview.88(1):193–206.doi:10.1215/01636545-2004-88-193.S2CID 144544216. Wu,Guo(May2016)."NewQingHistory:Dispute,Dialog,andInfluence".ChineseHistoricalReview.23(1):47–69.doi:10.1080/1547402X.2016.1168180.S2CID 148110389.CoverstheNewQingHistoryapproachthataroseintheU.S.inthe1980sandtheresponsestoit. Yu,GeorgeT.(1991)."The1911Revolution:Past,Present,andFuture".AsianSurvey.31(10):895–904.doi:10.2307/2645062.JSTOR 2645062. Externallinks WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedto: 清朝(category) SectionontheMingandQingdynastiesof"China'sPopulation:ReadingsandMaps." 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