launch vehicle | Types & Definition - Encyclopedia Britannica

launch vehicle, in spaceflight, a rocket-powered vehicle used to transport a spacecraft beyond Earth's atmosphere, either into orbit around Earth or to some ... launchvehicle TableofContents launchvehicle IntroductionOriginsV-2EarlyU.S.launchvehiclesEarlySovietlaunchvehiclesSoundingrocketsLaunchvehiclesoftheworldUnitedStatesRussiaandUkraineEuropeChinaJapanIndiaIsraelIranHowalaunchvehicleworksStagesUpperstagesFuelPayloadprotectionNavigation,guidance,andcontrolReliabilityLaunchingintoouterspaceLaunchbasesCommerciallaunchindustryThequestforreusabilityBeyondrockets FastFacts 2-MinSummary RelatedContent Media Images More MoreArticlesOnThisTopic AdditionalReading Contributors ArticleHistory Home Science Astronomy launchvehicle rocketsystem Actions Cite verifiedCite Whileeveryefforthasbeenmadetofollowcitationstylerules,theremaybesomediscrepancies. Pleaserefertotheappropriatestylemanualorothersourcesifyouhaveanyquestions. 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ExternalWebsites NASA-InSightLander-LaunchVehicle By JohnM.Logsdon • EditHistory TableofContents launchvehicle Seeallmedia KeyPeople: WernhervonBraun SergeiKorolev SamuelKurtzHoffman ...(Showmore) RelatedTopics: Ariane Delta Ares Atlas Titanrocket ...(Showmore) Seeallrelatedcontent→ Summary Readabriefsummaryofthistopic launchvehicle,inspaceflight,arocket-poweredvehicleusedtotransportaspacecraftbeyondEarth’satmosphere,eitherintoorbitaroundEarthortosomeotherdestinationinouterspace.Practicallaunchvehicleshavebeenusedtosendcrewedspacecraft,uncrewedspaceprobes,andsatellitesintospacesincethe1950s.TheyincludetheSoyuzandProtonlaunchersofRussiaaswellasseveralconvertedmilitarymissiles;RussiaisdevelopinganewfamilyoflauncherscalledAngara.EuropeoperatestheArianeVandVegalaunchers.TheUnitedStatesoperatedthespaceshuttleuntilitsretirementin2011.CurrentU.S.launchvehiclesincludetheAtlas,Delta,Falcon,andAntaresexpendableboosters.InordertoreachEarthorbit,alaunchvehiclemustaccelerateitsspacecraftpayloadtoaminimumvelocityof28,000km(17,500miles)perhour,whichisroughly25timesthespeedofsound.ToovercomeEarth’sgravityfortraveltoadestinationsuchastheMoonorMars,thespacecraftmustbeacceleratedtoavelocityofapproximately40,000km(25,000miles)perhour.Theinitialaccelerationmustalsobeprovidedveryrapidlyinordertominimizeboththetimethatalaunchvehicletakestotransitthestressfulenvironmentoftheatmosphereandthetimeduringwhichthevehicle’srocketenginesandothersystemsmustoperateneartheirperformancelimits;alaunchfromEarth’ssurfaceoratmosphereusuallyattainsorbitalvelocitywithin8–12minutes.Suchrapidaccelerationrequiresoneormorerocketenginesburninglargequantitiesofpropellantatahighrate,whileatthesametimethevehicleiscontrolledsothatitfollowsitsplannedtrajectory.Tomaximizethemassofthespacecraftthataparticularlaunchvehiclecancarry,thevehicle’sstructuralweightiskeptaslowaspossible.Mostoftheweightofthelaunchvehicleisactuallyitspropellants—i.e.,fuelandtheoxidizerneededtoburnthefuel.Designingreliablelaunchvehiclesischallenging.Thelauncherswiththebestrecentrecordshaveareliabilityratebetween95and99percent. BritannicaQuiz Space:FactorFiction? MarsandtheMilkyWayaremorethanjustcandybars!Seehowmuchmoreyouknowaboutspacewiththisquiz. WiththeexceptionofthepartiallyreusableU.S.spaceshuttleandtheSovietBuranvehicle(whichwasflownonlyonce),alllaunchvehiclestodatehavebeendesignedforonlyasingleuse;theyarethuscalledexpendablelaunchvehicles.Withcostsrangingfrommorethan10milliondollarseachforthesmallerlaunchvehiclesusedtoputlighterpayloadsintoorbittohundredsofmillionsofdollarsforthelaunchersneededfortheheaviestpayloads,accesstospaceisveryexpensive,ontheorderofmanythousandsofdollarsperkilogramtakentoorbit.Thecomplexityofthespaceshuttlemadeitextremelyexpensivetooperate,eventhoughportionsoftheshuttlesystemwerereusable.Attemptstodevelopafullyreusablelaunchvehicleinordertoreducethecostofaccesstospacehavesofarnotbeensuccessful,primarilybecausethepropulsionsystemandmaterialsneededforsuccessfuldevelopmentofsuchavehiclehavenotbeenavailable.Havingbothitsownlaunchvehiclesandaplacetolaunchthemareprerequisitesifaparticularcountryorgroupofcountrieswantstocarryoutanindependentspaceprogram.Todate,severalentities—Russia,theUnitedStates,Japan,China,EuropeancountriesthroughtheEuropeanSpaceAgency,Israel,India,Iran,andbothNorthandSouthKorea—havesuccessfullydevelopedandcurrentlymaintaintheirownspacelaunchcapability.OthercountriesaspiringtosuchcapabilityincludeBrazilandPakistan.Historically,manylaunchvehicleshavebeenderivedfromballisticmissiles,andthelinkbetweennewcountriesdevelopingspacelaunchcapabilityandobtaininglong-rangemilitarymissilesisacontinuingsecurityconcern.Mostlaunchvehicleshavebeendevelopedthroughgovernmentfunding,althoughsomeofthoselaunchvehicleshavebeenturnedovertotheprivatesectorasameansofprovidingcommercialspacetransportationservices.ParticularlyintheUnitedStates,therehavealsobeenanumberofentrepreneurialattemptstodevelopaprivatelyfundedlaunchvehicle;onecompany,SpaceExplorationTechnologies(SpaceX),hassuccessfullydevelopedtheFalconfamilyoflaunchvehicles. Origins Mostspacelaunchvehiclestracetheirheritagetoballisticmissilesdevelopedformilitaryuseduringthe1950sandearly’60s.ThosemissilesinturnwerebasedontheideasfirstdevelopedbyKonstantinTsiolkovskyinRussia,RobertGoddardintheUnitedStates,andHermannOberthinGermany.Eachofthesepioneersofspaceexplorationrecognizedthecentralityofdevelopingsuccessfullaunchvehiclesifhumanityweretogainaccesstoouterspace.RobertH.GoddardandrocketRobertH.Goddardandaliquidoxygen–gasolinerocketinitsframe;therocketwasfirstfiredonMarch16,1926,atAuburn,Massachusetts.NASA Tsiolkovskylateinthe19thcenturywasthefirsttorecognizetheneedforrocketstobeconstructedwithseparatestagesiftheyweretoachieveorbitalvelocity.Oberth’sclassic1923book,DieRaketezudenPlanetenräumen(“TheRocketintoInterplanetarySpace”),explainedthemathematicaltheoryofrocketryandappliedthetheorytorocketdesign.Oberth’sworksalsoledtothecreationofanumberofrocketclubsinGermany,asenthusiaststriedtoturnOberth’sideasintopracticaldevices.Goddardwasthefirsttobuildexperimentalliquid-fueledrockets;hisfirstrocket,launchedinAuburn,Massachusetts,onMarch16,1926,rose12.5metres(41feet)andtraveled56metres(184feet)fromitslaunchingplace. V-2 WhileGoddardspent1930–41inNewMexicoworkinginisolationonincreasinglysophisticatedrocketexperiments,asecondgenerationofGerman,Soviet,andAmericanrocketpioneersemergedduringthe1930s.Inparticular,ateamledbyWernhervonBraun,workingfortheGermanarmyduringtheNaziera,begandevelopmentofwhateventuallybecameknownastheV-2rocket.Althoughbuiltasaweaponofwar,theV-2laterservedasthepredecessorofsomeofthelaunchvehiclesusedintheearlyspaceprogramsoftheUnitedStatesand,toalesserextent,theSovietUnion. EarlyU.S.launchvehicles WiththeendofWorldWarIIandthebeginningoftheColdWar,rocketresearchintheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionfocusedonthedevelopmentofmissilesformilitaryuse,includingintermediate-rangeballisticmissiles(IRBMs)capableofcarryingnuclearwarheadsoverdistancesofapproximately2,400km(1,500miles)andintercontinentalballisticmissiles(ICBMs)withtransoceanicrange.BraunandhisteamhadbeentransportedtotheUnitedStatesafterthewar,togetherwithanumberofcapturedV-2rockets.Theserocketswerelaunchedunderarmyauspicestogainoperationalandtechnologicalexperience.Braun’steamduringthe1950sdevelopedtheJupiterIRBM,whichwasinmanywaysaderivativeoftheV-2rocket.AversionoftheJupiterwasthelaunchvehicleforthefirstU.S.artificialsatellite,Explorer1,launchedonJanuary31,1958.AnotherV-2derivative,calledRedstone,wasusedtolaunchthefirstU.S.astronaut,AlanShepard,onhisMay5,1961,suborbitalflight.V-2TestlaunchofaV-2rocket.CameraPress/GlobePhotos AnotherlineofdevelopmentwithintheU.S.industryledintheearly1950stotheNavahocruisemissile.(Acruisemissileflieslikeanunpilotedairplanetoitstarget,ratherthanfollowingtheballistictrajectoryofanIRBM.)Thisprogramwasshort-lived,buttherocketenginedevelopedforNavaho,whichitselfwasderivedfromtheV-2engine,wasinturnadaptedforuseinanumberoffirst-generationballisticmissiles,includingThor,anotherIRBM,andAtlasandTitan,thefirsttwoU.S.ICBMs.AversionofAtlaswasusedtolaunchJohnGlennonthefirstU.S.orbitalflightonFebruary20,1962,andTitanwasadaptedtobethelaunchvehicleforthetwo-personGeminiprograminthemid-1960s.LaunchoftheMercuryspacecraftFriendship7carryingU.S.astronautJohnH.Glenn,Jr.,onFeb.20,1962.RidingintospaceatopamodifiedAtlasintercontinentalballisticmissile,GlennbecamethefirstAmericantoorbitEarth.NASA AfterPres.JohnF.Kennedy’sannouncementin1961thatsendingAmericanstotheMoonwouldbeanationalgoal,BraunandothersinandoutsideoftheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA)setaboutdevelopingalaunchvehiclethatwouldenablealunarmissionbasedonrendezvouseitherinEarthorMoonorbit.TheBraunteamalreadyhadalesspowerfulrocketcalledSaturnIindevelopment;theiradvanceddesign,intendedforlunarmissions,wasconfiguredtousefiveF-1enginesandonthatbasiswasnamedSaturnV.Apollo15liftoffApollo15spacecraftduringliftofffromCapeKennedy,Florida,U.S.,atopaSaturnVthree-stagerocket,July26,1971.Acameramountedatthemobilelaunchtower's110-metre(360-foot)levelrecordedthisphotograph.NASA TheSaturnVwiththeApollospacecraftontopstood110.6metres(363feet)tall;itsweightatthetimeofliftoffwasover3,000,000kg(6,600,000pounds).Itsfirststageprovided33,000kilonewtons(7,500,000pounds)ofliftingpowerattakeoff.Thesecondstageacceleratedtherocketto24,600km(15,300miles)perhour,ornearlyorbitalvelocity.Thethirdstageacceleratedthespacecrafttoavelocityof39,400km(24,500miles)perhour,orover10km(6miles)persecond,sendingthethreeApollocrewmentowardtheMoon.TheSaturnVwasusedfrom1968to1972duringtheApolloprogramandlaunchedtheSkylabspacestationin1973.Apolloprogram:launchvehicleandspacecraftmodulesMajorelementsoftheU.S.Apolloprogram,showingtheSaturnVlaunchvehicleandconfigurationsoftheApollospacecraftmodulesatlaunchandduringtheirjourneytotheMoon.EncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc. TheSaturnfamilyoflaunchvehicles,whichalsoincludedtheSaturnIB,wasthefirstAmericanlaunchvehiclefamilydevelopedspecificallyforspaceuse.ThelesspowerfulSaturnIBwasusedtolaunchApollospacecraftonEarth-orbitingmissionsandduringtheU.S.-SovietApollo-SoyuzTestProjectin1975.AfterApollo-Soyuz,theSaturnfamilywasretiredfromserviceastheUnitedStatesdecidedtousethespaceshuttleasthesolelaunchvehicleforfuturegovernmentpayloads. EarlySovietlaunchvehicles AsimilarpatternwasfollowedintheSovietUnion.UnderthedirectionoftherocketpioneerSergeyKorolyov,theSovietUnionduringthe1950sdevelopedanICBMthatwascapableofdeliveringaheavynuclearwarheadtoAmericantargets.ThatICBM,calledtheR-7orSemyorka(“Number7”),wasfirstsuccessfullytestedonAugust21,1957.BecauseSovietnuclearwarheadswerebasedonaheavydesign,theR-7hadsignificantlygreaterweight-liftingcapabilitythandidinitialU.S.ICBMs.Whenusedasaspacelaunchvehicle,thisgavetheSovietUnionasignificantearlyadvantageintheweightthatcouldbeplacedinorbitorsenttotheMoonornearbyplanets.TherehavebeenanumberofvariantsoftheR-7withanupperstage,eachwithadifferentname,usuallymatchingthatofthepayload,andeachoptimizedtocarryoutspecificmissions.AnunmodifiedR-7wasusedtolaunchthefirstSovietsatellite,Sputnik1,onOctober4,1957,andanR-7variant,theVostok,launchedthefirstSovietcosmonauts,amongthemYuryGagarin,whoonApril12,1961,becamethefirsthumantoorbitEarth.OthervariantsincludetheVoshkod,usedtolaunchreconnaissancesatellites,andtheMolniya,usedtolaunchcommunicationsatellites.Amultipurposevariant,theSoyuz,wasfirstusedin1966and,withmanysubsequentvariantsandimprovements,isstillinservice.Thisfamilyoflaunchvehicleshascarriedoutmorespacelaunchesthantherestoftheworld’slaunchvehiclescombined.RocketenginesoftheSovietlaunchvehiclethatwasusedtoplacemannedVostokspacecraftintoorbit.BasedontheR-7intercontinentalballisticmissile,thelauncherhadfourstrap-onliquid-propellantboosterssurroundingtheliquid-propellantcorerocket.NovostiPressAgency Intheearly1960s,SovietdesignersbeganworkontheN1,whichwasoriginallydesignedtoundertakejourneysthatwouldrequiretrueheavy-liftcapability(thatis,theabilitytoliftmorethan80,000kg[176,000pounds]tolowEarthorbit).WhentheSovietUnionin1964decidedtoracetheUnitedStatestoafirstlunarlanding,thatbecamethesolemissionfortheN1.TheN1wasafive-stagevehicle.TheN1vehicleandtheL3lunarlandingspacecraftmountedatopitstood105metres(344feet)tallandweighed2,735,000kg(6,000,000pounds)fullyfueled.Toprovidethe44,000kilonewtons(10,000,000pounds)ofthrustneededtoliftthevehicleoffofitslaunchpad,30smallrocketengines,firinginunison,wererequired. TherewerefourN1launchattemptsbetweenFebruary1969andNovember1972.Allfailed,andonthesecondtestlaunch,onJuly3,1969,thevehicleexplodedonthelaunchpad,destroyingitandcausingatwo-yeardelayintheprogram.In1974theN1programwascanceled. In1976approvalwasgivenfordevelopmentoftheEnergiaheavy-liftlaunchvehicle(namedforthedesignbureauthatdevelopedit)anditsprimarymission,thespaceshuttleBuran.Energiacouldlift100,000kg(220,000pounds)tolowEarthorbit,slightlymorethantheSaturnV.Takeoffthrustwas29,000kilonewtons(6,600,000pounds).TheEnergiawas60metres(197feet)high.Itsspacecraftpayloadwasattachedtothesideofitscorestage,notplacedontopaswithalmostallotherlaunchvehicles. Energia’sfirstlaunchwasin1987andhadPolyus,anexperimentalmilitaryspaceplatform,asitspayload.In1988itssecondandfinallaunchcarriedBurantoorbitonitsonlymission,withoutacrewaboard.EnergiawasdeemedtooexpensivefortheSovietUniontocontinuetooperate,andnootherusesforthevehicleemerged. NewfromBritannica Play-Dohwascreatedtocleansootoffwallpaper;withthemoveawayfromcoalheatingofhomes,theneedforcleaningwallpaperdisappeared,andthecompoundwasremarketedasachildren’stoy. SeeAllGoodFacts Soundingrockets Anothercontributortothedevelopmentofspacelaunchcapabilityinthepost-WorldWarIIperiodwasworkonsoundingrockets,whichareusedtocarryscientificinstrumentsandotherdevicestoheightsabovethosethatcanbereachedbyhigh-altitudeballoonsbutwhichdonothavethepowertoacceleratetheirpayloadstoorbitalvelocities.Rather,soundingrocketsprovideseveralminutesofdata-gatheringtimeabovetheatmospherefortheinstrumentstheycarry;thoseinstrumentsthenfallbacktoEarth.Mostcountriesthathavedevelopedspacelaunchcapabilityhavefirstdevelopedsoundingrocketsas,amongotherfactors,awayofgainingexperiencewiththetechnologiesneededforlaunchvehicledevelopment.SoundingrocketsremaininuseforsomeareasofscientificinvestigationsthatdonotrequirethemoreexpensiveandtechnicallydemandingaccesstoEarthorbit.