Egoism - Wikipedia

Egoism is a philosophy concerned with the role of the self, or ego, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a ... Egoism FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Philosophyconcerningself-regardingmotivationsorbehaviour Thisarticleisaboutthephilosophyofself-regardingmotivationsorbehaviour.ItisnottobeconfusedwithEgotismorEgocentrism. "Egoist"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeEgoist(disambiguation). FortheAustralianband,seeEgoism(band). PartofaseriesonIndividualism Topicsandconcepts Autonomy Civilliberties Doityourself Eremitism Freelove Freethought Humanrights Individual Individualrights Individualreclamation Individuation Laissez-faire Libertine Liberty Methodologicalindividualism Negativeliberty Personalproperty Positiveliberty Privateproperty Self-actualization Self-ownership Self-sufficiency Subjectivity Thinkers Antiphon Aristippus Aristotle Armand Camus Diogenes Emerson Epicurus Godwin Goldman Hayek Hess Igualada Jefferson Laozi Libertad Locke Jung Hipparchia Mencken Mill Mises Montaigne Nietzsche Novatore Nozick Onfray Palante Quelle Rand Rothbard Ryner Sade Schopenhauer Smith Spencer Spooner Stirner Thoreau Tucker Walker Warren Wilde Zeno Yang Philosophies Autarchism Anarchism Individualistanarchism Anarcho-capitalism Egoistanarchism Left-wingmarketanarchism Socialanarchism Egoism Ethicalegoism Rationalegoism Existentialism Hedonism Humanism Individualistfeminism Equityfeminism Liberalfeminism Liberalism Classicalliberalism Libertarianism Left-libertarianism Libertariansocialism Right-libertarianism Minarchism Mutualism Objectivism Subjectivism Voluntaryism Principalconcerns Anti-individualism Authoritarianism Collectivism Conformity Dogmatism Grouprights Herdmentality Indoctrination Masssociety Mobbing Socialengineering Statism Tyranny Tyrannyofthemajority Theocracy Totalitarianism vte Egoismisaphilosophyconcernedwiththeroleoftheself,orego,asthemotivationandgoalofone'sownaction.Differenttheoriesofegoismencompassarangeofdisparateideasandcangenerallybecategorizedintodescriptiveornormativeforms.[1][2]Thatis,theymaybeinterestedineitherdescribingthatpeopledoactinself-interestorprescribingthattheyshould.Otherdefinitionsofegoismmayinsteademphasiseactionaccordingtoone'swillratherthanone'sself-interest,andfurthermorepositthatthisisatruersenseofegoism.[3] TheNewCatholicEncyclopediastatesofegoismthatit"incorporatesinitselfcertainbasictruths:itisnaturalformantolovehimself;heshouldmoreoverdoso,sinceeachoneisultimatelyresponsibleforhimself;pleasure,thedevelopmentofone'spotentialities,andtheacquisitionofpowerarenormallydesirable."[4]Themoralcensureofself-interestisacommonsubjectofcritiqueinegoistphilosophy,withsuchjudgmentsbeingexaminedasmeansofcontrolandtheresultofpowerrelations.Egoismmayalsorejectthatinsightintoone'sinternalmotivationcanarriveextrinsically,suchasfrompsychologyorsociology,[1]though,forexample,thisisnotpresentinthephilosophyofFriedrichNietzsche. Contents 1Overview 1.1Descriptivetheories 1.2Normativetheories 2Theoreticians 2.1Stirner 2.2Nietzsche 2.3Othertheoreticians 3Relationtoaltruism 4Relationtonihilism 5Politicalegoism 5.1Revolutionarypolitics 5.2Fascism 6Seealso 7References Overview[edit] ThetermegoismisderivedfromtheFrenchégoïsme,fromtheLatinego(firstpersonsingularpersonalpronoun;"I")withtheFrench-ïsme("-ism"). Descriptivetheories[edit] Thedescriptivevariantsofegoismareconcernedwithself-regardasafactualdescriptionofhumanmotivationand,initsfurthestapplication,thatallhumanmotivationstemsfromthedesiresandinterestoftheego.[1][2]Inthesetheories,actionwhichisself-regardingmaybesimplytermedegoistic.[5] Thepositionthatpeopletendtoactintheirownself-interestiscalleddefaultegoism,[6]whereaspsychologicalegoismisthepositionthatallmotivationsarerootedinanultimatelyself-servingpsyche.Thatis,initsstrongform,thatevenseeminglyaltruisticactionsareonlydisguisedassuchandarealwaysself-serving.Itsweakerforminsteadholdsthat,evenifaltruisticmotivationispossible,thewilledactionnecessarilybecomesegoisticinservingone'sownwill.[2]Incontrasttothisandphilosophicalegoism,biologicalegoism(alsocalledevolutionaryegoism)describesmotivationsrootedsolelyinreproductiveself-interest(i.e.reproductivefitness).[7][8]Furthermore,selfishgenetheoryholdsthatitistheself-interestofgeneticinformationthatconditionshumanbehaviour.[9] Normativetheories[edit] Theorieswhichholdegoismtobenormativestipulatethattheegooughttopromoteitsowninterestsaboveothervalues.Wherethisoughtisheldtobeapragmaticjudgmentitistermedrationalegoismandwhereitisheldtobeamoraljudgmentitistermedethicalegoism.[1]TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophystatesthat"ethicalegoismmightalsoapplytothingsotherthanacts,suchasrulesorcharactertraits"butthatsuchvariantsareuncommon.[2]Furthermore,conditionalegoismisaconsequentialistformofethicalegoismwhichholdsthategoismismorallyrightifitleadstomorallyacceptableends.[1]JohnF.Welsh,inhisworkMaxStirner'sDialecticalEgoism:ANewInterpretation,coinsthetermdialecticalegoismtodescribeaninterpretationoftheegoistphilosophyofMaxStirnerasbeingfundamentallydialectical.[10][non-primarysourceneeded] Normativeegoism,asinthecaseofStirner,neednotrejectthatsomemodesofbehavioraretobevaluedaboveothers—suchasStirner'saffirmationthatnon-restrictionandautonomyaretobemosthighlyvalued.[11]Contrarytheories,however,mayjustaseasilyfavouregoisticdominationofothers.[12] Theoreticians[edit] Stirner[edit] ThissectionisanexcerptfromMaxStirner§Egoism.[edit] Stirner'segoismarguesthatindividualsareimpossibletofullycomprehend,asnounderstandingoftheselfcanadequatelydescribethefullnessofexperience.Stirnerhasbeenbroadlyunderstoodascontainingtraitsofbothpsychologicalegoismandrationalegoism.Unliketheself-interestdescribedbyAynRand,Stirnerdidnotaddressindividualself-interest,selfishness,orperscriptionsforhowoneshouldact.Heurgedindividualstodecideforthemselvesandfulfilltheirownegoism.[13] Hebelievedthateveryonewaspropelledbytheirownegoismanddesiresandthatthosewhoacceptedthis—aswillingegoists—couldfreelylivetheirindividualdesires,whilethosewhodidnot—asunwillingegoists—willfalselybelievetheyarefulfillinganothercausewhiletheyaresecretlyfulfillingtheirowndesiresforhappinessandsecurity.Thewillingegoistwouldseethattheycouldactfreely,unboundfromobediencetosacredbutartificialtruthslikelaw,rights,morality,andreligion.PoweristhemethodofStirner'segoismandtheonlyjustifiedmethodofgainingphilosophicalproperty.Stirnerdidnotbelieveintheone-trackpursuitofgreed,whichasonlyoneaspectoftheegowouldleadtobeingpossessedbyacauseotherthanthefullego.Hedidnotbelieveinnaturalrightstopropertyandencouragedinsurrectionagainstallformsofauthority,includingdisrespectforproperty.[13] Nietzsche[edit] Thissectionneedsexpansion.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(November2020) Isubmitthategoismbelongstotheessenceofanoblesoul,Imeantheunalterablebeliefthattoabeingsuchas"we,"otherbeingsmustnaturallybeinsubjection,andhavetosacrificethemselves.Thenoblesoulacceptsthefactofhisegoismwithoutquestion,andalsowithoutconsciousnessofharshness,constraint,orarbitrarinesstherein,butratherassomethingthatmayhaveitsbasisintheprimarylawofthings:—ifhesoughtadesignationforithewouldsay:"Itisjusticeitself."— FriedrichNietzsche,BeyondGoodandEvil ThephilosophyofFriedrichNietzschehasbeenlinkedtoformsofbothdescriptiveandnormativeegoism.[14]Nietzsche,inattackingthewidelyheldmoralabhorrenceforegoisticaction,seekstofreehigherhumanbeingsfromtheirbeliefthatthismoralityisgoodforthem.HerejectsChristianandKantianethicsasmerelythedisguisedegoismofslavemorality.[6][15] Theword"good"isfromthestartinnowaynecessarilytiedupwith"unegoistic"actions,asitisinthesuperstitionofthosegenealogistsofmorality.Rather,thatoccursforthefirsttimewiththecollapseofaristocraticvaluejudgments,whenthisentirecontrastbetween"egoistic"and"unegoistic"presseditselfevermorestronglyintohumanawareness—itis,tousemyownwords,theinstinctoftheherdwhich,throughthiscontrast,finallygetsitsword(anditswords).[16]— FriedrichNietzsche,OntheGenealogyofMorals InhisOntheGenealogyofMorals,FriedrichNietzschetracestheoriginsofmaster–slavemoralitytofundamentallyegoisticvaluejudgments.Inthearistocraticvaluation,excellenceandvirtuecomeasaformofsuperiorityoverthecommonmasses,whichthepriestlyvaluation,inressentimentofpower,seekstoinvert—wherethepowerlessandpitiablebecomethemoralideal.Thisupholdingofunegoisticactionsisthereforeseenasstemmingfromadesiretorejectthesuperiorityorexcellencyofothers.Heholdsthatallnormativesystemswhichoperateintheroleoftenassociatedwithmoralityfavortheinterestsofsomepeople,often,thoughnotnecessarily,attheexpenseofothers.[15][17] Othertheoreticians[edit] Thislistisincomplete;youcanhelpbyaddingmissingitems.(August2020) JeremyBentham,[18]whoisattributedasanearlyproponentofpsychologicalegoism NikolaiGavrilovichChernyshevskii,[19]aRussianliterarycriticandphilosopherofnihilismandrationalegoism AleisterCrowley,[20]whopopularizedtheexpression"Dowhatthouwilt" ArthurDesmondasRagnarRedbeard[citationneeded] ThomasHobbes,[18]whoisattributedasanearlyproponentofpsychologicalegoism JohnHenryMackay,aBritish-Germanegoistanarchist BernarddeMandeville,[21]whosematerialismhasbeenretroactivelydescribedasformofegoism FriedrichNietzsche,[22]whoseconceptofwilltopowerhasbothdescriptiveandprescriptiveinterpretations[15] DmitryIvanovichPisarev,[23]aRussianliterarycriticandphilosopherofnihilismandrationalegoism AynRand,[22]whosupportedanegoisticmodelofcapitalistself-incentiveandselfishness[24] MaxStirner,whoseviewsweredescribedbyJohnF.Welshas"dialecticalegoism"[25] BenjaminTucker,anAmericanegoistanarchist JamesL.Walker,whoindependentlyformulatedanegoistphilosophybeforehimselfdiscoveringtheworkofStirner[26] Relationtoaltruism[edit] In1851,FrenchphilosopherAugusteComtecoinedthetermaltruism(French:altruisme;fromItalianaltrui,fromLatinalteri 'others')asanantonymforegoism.[27][28]Inthissense,altruismdefinedComte'spositionthatallself-regardmustbereplacedwithonlytheregardforothers.[27] WhileFriedrichNietzschedoesnotviewaltruismasasuitableantonymforegoism,[29]Comteinsteadstatesthatonlytwohumanmotivationsexist,egoisticandaltruistic,andthatthetwocannotbemediated;thatis,onemustalwayspredominatetheother.ForComte,thetotalsubordinationoftheselftoaltruismisanecessaryconditiontobothsocialandpersonalbenefit.[27]Nietzsche,ratherthanrejectingthepracticeofaltruism,warnsthatdespitetherebeingneithermuchaltruismnorequalityintheworld,thereisalmostuniversalendorsementoftheirvalueand,notoriously,evenbythosewhoareitsworstenemiesinpractice.[15]Egoistphilosophycommonlyviewsthesubordinationoftheselftoaltruismaseitheraformofdominationthatlimitsfreedom,anunethicalorirrationalprinciple,oranextensionofsomeegoisticrootcause.[1] Inevolutionarytheory,biologicalaltruismistheobservedoccurrenceofanorganismactingtothebenefitofothersatthecostofitsownreproductivefitness.Whilebiologicalegoismdoesgrantthatanorganismmayacttothebenefitofothers,itdescribesonlysuchwheninaccordancewithreproductiveself-interest.Kinaltruismandselfishgenetheoryareexamplesofthisdivision.[8][9]Onbiologicalaltruism,theStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophystates:"Contrarytowhatisoftenthought,anevolutionaryapproachtohumanbehaviourdoesnotimplythathumansarelikelytobemotivatedbyself-interestalone.Onestrategybywhich‘selfishgenes’mayincreasetheirfuturerepresentationisbycausinghumanstobenon-selfish,inthepsychologicalsense."[9]Thisisacentraltopicwithincontemporarydiscourseofpsychologicalegoism.[2] Relationtonihilism[edit] PartofaseriesonNihilismTheNihilistbyPaulMerwart Origins Nominalism Reductionism Russiannihilism Skepticism Solipsism Concepts Amorality Anomie Aprèsmoi,ledéluge Godisdead Lastman Meaninglessness Nonexistence Nothingness Paradoxofnihilism Valuelessness Theories Epistemological Existential Legal Mereological Metaphysical Moral National Ontological Political Scientific Therapeutic People Russiannihilists MikhailBakunin NikolayChernyshevsky NikolayDobrolyubov SofyaKovalevskaya SergeyNechayev DmitryPisarev VarfolomeyZaytsev Othernihilistsandnon-nihilists TheodorAdorno JeanBaudrillard Buddha AlbertCamus EmilCioran GillesDeleuze FyodorDostoevsky Gorgias HegesiasofCyrene MartinHeidegger FriedrichJacobi ErnstJünger SørenKierkegaard PhilippMainländer FriedrichNietzsche KeijiNishitani SeraphimRose Jean-PaulSartre OswaldSpengler MaxStirner LeoStrauss HelmutThielicke JunTsuji IvanTurgenev Relatedtopics Absurdism Anarchism Antifoundationalism Antinatalism Antinihilisticnovel Atheism Egoism Existentialism Misanthropy Nietzscheanaffirmation Pessimism Philosophyofsuicide Postmodernity  Philosophyportal  Religionportalvte Thehistoryofegoistthoughthasoftenoverlappedwiththatofnihilism.Forexample,MaxStirner'srejectionofabsolutesandabstractconceptsoftenplaceshimamongthefirstphilosophicalnihilists.[30]ThepopulardescriptionofStirnerasamoralnihilist,however,mayfailtoencapsulatecertainsubtletiesofhisethicalthought.TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophystates,"Stirnerisclearlycommittedtothenon-nihilisticviewthatcertainkindsofcharacterandmodesofbehaviour(namelyautonomousindividualsandactions)aretobevaluedaboveallothers.Hisconceptionofmoralityis,inthisrespect,anarrowone,andhisrejectionofthelegitimacyofmoralclaimsisnottobeconfusedwithadenialoftheproprietyofallnormativeorethicaljudgement."[11]Stirner'snihilismmayinsteadbeunderstoodascosmicnihilism.[31]Likewise,bothnormativeanddescriptivetheoriesofegoismfurtherdevelopedunderRussiannihilism,shortlygivingbirthtorationalegoism.NihilistphilosophersDmitryPisarevandNikolayChernyshevskywereinfluentialinthisregard,compoundingsuchformsofegoismwithharddeterminism.[3][23][19] MaxStirner'sphilosophystronglyrejectsmodernityandishighlycriticaloftheincreasingdogmatismandoppressivesocialinstitutionsthatembodyit.Inorderthatitmightbesurpassed,egoistprinciplesareupheldasanecessaryadvancementbeyondthemodernworld.[11]TheStanfordEncyclopediastatesthatStirner'shistoricalanalysesserveto"underminehistoricalnarrativeswhichportraythemoderndevelopmentofhumankindastheprogressiverealisationoffreedom,butalsotosupportanaccountofindividualsinthemodernworldasincreasinglyoppressed".[11]ThiscritiqueofhumanistdiscoursesespeciallyhaslinkedStirnertomorecontemporarypoststructuralistthought.[11] Politicalegoism[edit] Furtherinformation:Egoistanarchism,Egoismandanti-statism,andObjectivismandlibertarianism Sincenormativeegoismrejectsthemoralobligationtosubordinatetheegotosociety-at-largeorarulingclass,itmaybepredisposedtocertainpoliticalimplications.TheInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophystates: Egoistsironicallycanbereadasmoralandpoliticalegalitariansglorifyingthedignityofeachandeverypersontopursuelifeastheyseefit.Mistakesinsecuringthepropermeansandappropriateendswillbemadebyindividuals,butiftheyaremorallyresponsiblefortheiractionstheynotonlywillbeartheconsequencesbutalsotheopportunityforadaptingandlearning.[1] Incontrastwiththishowever,suchanethicmaynotmorallyobligateagainsttheegoisticexerciseofpoweroverothers.Onthesegrounds,FriedrichNietzschecriticizesegalitarianmoralityandpoliticalprojectsasunconducivetothedevelopmentofhumanexcellence.[15]MaxStirner'sownconception,theunionofegoistsasdetailedinhisworkTheEgoandItsOwn,sawaproposedformofsocietalrelationswherebylimitationsonegoisticactionarerejected.[32]Whenposthumouslyadoptedbytheanarchistmovement,thisbecamethefoundationforegoistanarchism. Stirner'svariantofpropertytheoryissimilarlydialectical,wheretheconceptofownershipisonlythatpersonaldistinctionmadebetweenwhatisone'spropertyandwhatisnot.Consequentially,itistheexerciseofcontroloverpropertywhichconstitutesthenonabstractpossessionofit.[32]Incontrasttothis,AynRandincorporatescapitalistpropertyrightsintoheregoisttheory.[24] Revolutionarypolitics[edit] EgoistphilosopherNikolaiGavrilovichChernyshevskiiwasthedominantintellectualfigurebehindthe1860–1917revolutionarymovementinRussia,whichresultedintheassassinationofTsarAlexanderIIeightyearsbeforehisdeathin1889.[19][33]DmitryPisarevwasasimilarlyradicalinfluencewithinthemovement,thoughhedidnotpersonallyadvocatepoliticalrevolution.[23] Philosophicalegoismhasalsofoundwideappealamonganarchistrevolutionariesandthinkers,suchasJohnHenryMackay,BenjaminTucker,ÉmileArmand,HanRynerGérarddeLacaze-Duthiers,RenzoNovatore,MiguelGiménezIgualada,andLevChernyi.Thoughhedidnotinvolveinanyrevolutionarymovementshimself,theentireschoolofindividualistanarchismowesmuchofitsintellectualheritagetoMaxStirner. Egoistphilosophymaybemisrepresentedasaprincipallyrevolutionaryfieldofthought.However,neitherHobbesiannorNietzscheantheoriesofegoismapproveofpoliticalrevolution.AnarchismandrevolutionarysocialismwerealsostronglyrejectedbyAynRandandherfollowers. Fascism[edit] ThephilosophiesofbothNietzscheandStirnerwereheavilyappropriatedbyfascistandproto-fascistideologies.NietzscheinparticularhasinfamouslybeenmisrepresentedasapredecessortoNazismandasubstantialacademiceffortwasnecessarytodisassociatehisideasfromtheiraforementionedappropriation.[12][34] Atfirstsight,NazitotalitarianismmayseemtheoppositeofStirner'sradicalindividualism.Butfascismwasaboveallanattempttodissolvethesocialtiescreatedbyhistoryandreplacethembyartificialbondsamongindividualswhowereexpectedtorenderexplicitobediencetothestateongroundsofabsoluteegoism.Fascisteducationcombinedthetenetsofasocialegoismandunquestioningconformism,thelatterbeingthemeansbywhichtheindividualsecuredhisownnicheinthesystem.Stirner'sphilosophyhasnothingtosayagainstconformism,itonlyobjectstotheEgobeingsubordinatedtoanyhigherprinciple:theegoistisfreetoadjusttotheworldifitisclearhewillbetterhimselfbydoingso.His'rebellion'maytaketheformofutterservilityifitwillfurtherhisinterest;whathemustnotdoistobeboundby'general'valuesormythsofhumanity.Thetotalitarianidealofabarrack-likesocietyfromwhichallreal,historicaltieshavebeeneliminatedisperfectlyconsistentwithStirner'sprinciples:theegoist,byhisverynature,mustbepreparedtofightunderanyflagthatsuitshisconvenience.[12]— LeszekKołakowski,MainCurrentsofMarxism,pp.137-138 Seealso[edit] Lookupegoism,egoist,oregoisticinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. Altruism –Principleorpracticeofconcernforthewelfareofothers Enlightenedself-interest Homoeconomicus –Modelofhumansasrational,self-interestedagents Individualism –Conceptregardingthemoralworthoftheindividual Individualistanarchism –Branchofanarchismthatemphasizesindividuals Machiavellianism(psychology) –Psychologicaltrait Selfishness –Concernforselfabovethatofothers Selfism –Anyphilosophy,theory,doctrine,ortendencythatupholdsexplicitlyselfishprinciplesasbeingdesirable Suitheism References[edit] ^abcdefgMoseley,Alexander."Egoism".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^abcdeShaver,Robert(2021)."Egoism".InEdwardN.Zalta(ed.).StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^abScanlan,JamesP.(1999)."TheCaseagainstRationalEgoisminDostoevsky'sNotesfromUnderground".JournaloftheHistoryofIdeas.UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.60(3):549–567.JSTOR 3654018. ^Dalcourt,G.J."Egoism".NewCatholicEncyclopedia.RetrievedAugust11,2020–viaEncyclopedia.com. ^"egoistic".AmericanHeritageDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(5th ed.).2011.RetrievedAugust18,2020–viaDictionary.com. ^abJason,Gary(2015)."PortraitsofEgoisminClassicCinemaIII:NietzscheanPortrayals". ^Schmid,HansBernhard(2010)."PhilosophicalEgoism:ItsNatureandLimitations"(PDF).EconomicsandPhilosophy.CambridgeUniversityPress.26(2):217–240.doi:10.1017/S0266267110000209.S2CID 145330319. ^abHawley,PatriciaH.(2014)."OntogenyandSocialDominance:ADevelopmentalViewofHumanPowerPatterns".EvolutionaryPsychology.12(2):318–42.doi:10.1177/147470491401200204.PMID 25299882.S2CID 6641843. ^abcOkasha,Samir(2020)."BiologicalAltruism".InEdwardN.Zalta(ed.).TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^Welsh,JohnF.(2010).MaxStirner'sDialecticalEgoism:aNewInterpretation.LexingtonBooks. ^abcdeLeopold,David(2019)."MaxStirner".InEdwardN.Zalta(ed.).StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^abcKołakowski,Leszek(2005)[1stpub.1976].MainCurrentsofMarxism.W.W.Norton.pp. 137–138. ^abMcKay,Iain,ed.(2012)."WhataretheideasofMaxStirner?".AnAnarchistFAQ.Vol. II.Stirling:AKPress.pp. 1561–1573.ISBN 978-1849351225. ^Wilkerson,Dale."FriedrichNietzsche(1844—1900)".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^abcdeBrian,Leiter(2021)."Nietzsche'sMoralandPoliticalPhilosophy".InEdwardN.Zalta(ed.).StandfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^Nietzsche,Friedrich.OntheGenealogyofMorals. ^Anderson,R.Lanier(2021)."FriedrichNietzsche".InEdwardN.Zalta(ed.).StandfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^abMay,Joshua."PsychologicalEgoism".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^abc"Chernyshevskii,NikolaiGavrilovich(1828–1889)".EncyclopediaofPhilosophy.RetrievedAugust11,2020–viaEncyclopedia.com. ^Partridge,ChristopherHugh(2017)."AleisterCrowleyonDrugs"(PDF).InternationalJournalfortheStudyofNewReligions.EquinoxPublishingLtd.7(2):125–151.doi:10.1558/ijsnr.v7i2.31941.ISSN 2041-9511. ^Vandenberg,Phyllis;DeHart,Abigail."BernardMandeville(1670—1733)".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^abHicks,StephenR.C.(2009)."EgoisminNietzscheandRand".TheJournalofAynRandStudies.PennStateUniversityPress.10(2):249–291.JSTOR 41560389. ^abc"Pisarev,DmitryIvanovich".EncyclopediaofRussianHistory.RetrievedAugust11,2020–viaEncyclopedia.com. ^abHicks,StephenR.C.(2005)."AynRand(1905–1982)".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^"MaxStirner'sDialecticalEgoism:ANewInterpretation :JohnF.Welsh :FreeDownload,Borrow,andStreaming".InternetArchive.RetrievedJuly18,2020. ^McElroy,Wendy(2003).TheDebatesofLiberty.LexingtonBooks.pp. 54–55. ^abcBrosnahan,Timothy(1907)."Altruism".TheCatholicEncyclopedia.RetrievedAugust19,2020–viaNewAdvent. ^"Altriusm(ethics)".EncyclopaediaBritannica. ^Nietzsche,Friedrich.KSA.9:11[7] ^Pratt,Alan."Nihilism".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^Crosby,DonaldA.(1998)."Nihilism".RoutledgeEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.TaylorandFrancis.§Cosmicnihilism.doi:10.4324/9780415249126-N037-1.ISBN 9780415250696. ^abNyberg,SveinOlav."Theunionofegoists"(PDF).NonServiam.Oslo,Norway:SveinOlavNyberg.1:13–14.OCLC 47758413.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onDecember7,2010.RetrievedAugust19,2020. ^"NarodnayaVolya(Russianrevolutionaryorganization)".EncyclopaediaBritannica. ^Ansell-Pearson,Keith(1994).AnIntroductiontoNietzscheasPoliticalThinker:ThePerfectNihilist.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 33–34. 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