Morphology (linguistics) - Wikipedia

Examples Morphology(linguistics) FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch NottobeconfusedwithMorphologicaltypology. Studyofwords,theirformation,andtheirrelationshipsinaword PartofaseriesonLinguistics OutlineHistoryIndex Generallinguistics Diachronic Lexicography Morphology Phonology Pragmatics Semantics Syntax Syntax–semanticsinterface Typology‎ Appliedlinguistics Acquisition Anthropological Applied Computational Discourseanalysis Documentation Forensic Historyoflinguistics Neurolinguistics Philosophyoflanguage Phonetics Psycholinguistics Sociolinguistics Textandcorpuslinguistics Translatingandinterpreting Writingsystems Theoreticalframeworks Formalist Glossematics Constituency Dependency Distributionalism Generative Functional Pragueschool Functionaldiscoursegrammar Cognitive Usage-based Systemicfunctional Structuralism Topics Autonomyofsyntax Compositionality Conservative/innovativeforms Descriptivism Etymology Iconicity Internetlinguistics LGBTlinguistics Originoflanguage Orthography Philosophyoflinguistics Prescriptivism Second-languageacquisition Theoryoflanguage Portalvte Inlinguistics,morphology(/mɔːrˈfɒlədʒi/[1])isthestudyofwords,howtheyareformed,andtheirrelationshiptootherwordsinthesamelanguage.[2][3]Itanalyzesthestructureofwordsandpartsofwordssuchasstems,rootwords,prefixes,andsuffixes.Morphologyalsolooksatpartsofspeech,intonationandstress,andthewayscontextcanchangeaword'spronunciationandmeaning.Morphologydiffersfrommorphologicaltypology,whichistheclassificationoflanguagesbasedontheiruseofwords,[4]andlexicology,whichisthestudyofwordsandhowtheymakeupalanguage'svocabulary.[5] Whilewords,alongwithclitics,aregenerallyacceptedasbeingthesmallestunitsofsyntax,inmostlanguages,ifnotall,manywordscanberelatedtootherwordsbyrulesthatcollectivelydescribethegrammarforthatlanguage.Forexample,Englishspeakersrecognizethatthewordsdoganddogsarecloselyrelated,differentiatedonlybythepluralitymorpheme"-s",onlyfoundboundtonounphrases.SpeakersofEnglish,afusionallanguage,recognizetheserelationsfromtheirinnateknowledgeofEnglish'srulesofwordformation.Theyinferintuitivelythatdogistodogsascatistocats;and,insimilarfashion,dogistodogcatcherasdishistodishwasher.Bycontrast,ClassicalChinesehasverylittlemorphology,usingalmostexclusivelyunboundmorphemes("free"morphemes)anditreliesonwordordertoconveymeaning.(MostwordsinmodernStandardChinese["Mandarin"],however,arecompoundsandmostrootsarebound.)Theseareunderstoodasgrammarsthatrepresentthemorphologyofthelanguage.Therulesunderstoodbyaspeakerreflectspecificpatternsorregularitiesinthewaywordsareformedfromsmallerunitsinthelanguagetheyareusing,andhowthosesmallerunitsinteractinspeech.Inthisway,morphologyisthebranchoflinguisticsthatstudiespatternsofwordformationwithinandacrosslanguagesandattemptstoformulaterulesthatmodeltheknowledgeofthespeakersofthoselanguages. Phonologicalandorthographicmodificationsbetweenabasewordanditsoriginmaybepartialtoliteracyskills.Studieshaveindicatedthatthepresenceofmodificationinphonologyandorthographymakesmorphologicallycomplexwordshardertounderstandandthattheabsenceofmodificationbetweenabasewordanditsoriginmakesmorphologicallycomplexwordseasiertounderstand.Morphologicallycomplexwordsareeasiertocomprehendwhentheyincludeabaseword.[6] Polysyntheticlanguages,suchasChukchi,havewordscomposedofmanymorphemes.Forexample,theChukchiword"təmeyŋəlevtpəγtərkən",meaning"Ihaveafierceheadache",iscomposedofeightmorphemest-ə-meyŋ-ə-levt-pəγt-ə-rkənthatmaybeglossed.Themorphologyofsuchlanguagesallowsforeachconsonantandvoweltobeunderstoodasmorphemes,whilethegrammarofthelanguageindicatestheusageandunderstandingofeachmorpheme. Thedisciplinethatdealsspecificallywiththesoundchangesoccurringwithinmorphemesismorphophonology. Contents 1History 2Fundamentalconcepts 2.1Lexemesandwordforms 2.1.1Prosodicwordvs.morphologicalword 2.2Inflectionvs.wordformation 2.3Typesofwordformation 2.4Paradigmsandmorphosyntax 2.5Allomorphy 2.6Lexicalmorphology 3Models 3.1Morpheme-basedmorphology 3.2Lexeme-basedmorphology 3.3Word-basedmorphology 4Morphologicaltypology 5Examples 6Seealso 7Footnotes 8References 9Furtherreading History[edit] ThehistoryofmorphologicalanalysisdatesbacktotheancientIndianlinguistPāṇini,whoformulatedthe3,959rulesofSanskritmorphologyinthetextAṣṭādhyāyībyusingaconstituencygrammar.TheGreco-Romangrammaticaltraditionalsoengagedinmorphologicalanalysis.[7]StudiesinArabicmorphology,conductedbyMarāḥal-arwāḥandAḥmadb.‘alīMas‘ūd,datebacktoatleast1200CE.[8] Thelinguisticterm"morphology"wascoinedbyAugustSchleicherin1859.[a][9] Fundamentalconcepts[edit] Lexemesandwordforms[edit] Theterm"word"hasnowell-definedmeaning.[10]Instead,tworelatedtermsareusedinmorphology:lexemeandword-form.Generally,alexemeisasetofinflectedword-formsthatisoftenrepresentedwiththecitationforminsmallcapitals.[11]Forinstance,thelexemeeatcontainstheword-formseat,eats,eaten,andate.Eatandeatsarethusconsidereddifferentword-formsbelongingtothesamelexemeeat.EatandEater,ontheotherhand,aredifferentlexemes,astheyrefertotwodifferentconcepts. Prosodicwordvs.morphologicalword[edit] Hereareexamplesfromotherlanguagesofthefailureofasinglephonologicalwordtocoincidewithasinglemorphologicalwordform.InLatin,onewaytoexpresstheconceptof'NOUN-PHRASE1andNOUN-PHRASE2'(asin"applesandoranges")istosuffix'-que'tothesecondnounphrase:"applesoranges-and",asitwere.AnextremelevelofthistheoreticalquandaryposedbysomephonologicalwordsisprovidedbytheKwak'walalanguage.[b]InKwak'wala,asinagreatmanyotherlanguages,meaningrelationsbetweennouns,includingpossessionand"semanticcase",areformulatedbyaffixesinsteadofbyindependent"words".Thethree-wordEnglishphrase,"withhisclub",where'with'identifiesitsdependentnounphraseasaninstrumentand'his'denotesapossessionrelation,wouldconsistoftwowordsorevenjustonewordinmanylanguages.Unlikemostlanguages,Kwak'walasemanticaffixesphonologicallyattachnottothelexemetheypertaintosemantically,buttotheprecedinglexeme.Considerthefollowingexample(inKwak'wala,sentencesbeginwithwhatcorrespondstoanEnglishverb):[c] kwixʔid-i-daclubbed-PIVOT-DETERMINERbəgwanəmai-χ-aman-ACCUSATIVE-DETERMINERq'asa-s-isiotter-INSTRUMENTAL-3SG-POSSESSIVEt'alwagwayuclubkwixʔid-i-dabəgwanəmai-χ-aq'asa-s-isit'alwagwayuclubbed-PIVOT-DETERMINERman-ACCUSATIVE-DETERMINERotter-INSTRUMENTAL-3SG-POSSESSIVEclub"themanclubbedtheotterwithhisclub." (Notationnotes: accusativecasemarksanentitythatsomethingisdoneto. determinersarewordssuchas"the","this","that". theconceptof"pivot"isatheoreticalconstructthatisnotrelevanttothisdiscussion.) Thatis,tothespeakerofKwak'wala,thesentencedoesnotcontainthe"words"'him-the-otter'or'with-his-club'Instead,themarkers-i-da(PIVOT-'the'),referringto"man",attachesnottothenounbəgwanəma("man")buttotheverb;themarkers-χ-a(ACCUSATIVE-'the'),referringtootter,attachtobəgwanəmainsteadoftoq'asa('otter'),etc.Inotherwords,aspeakerofKwak'waladoesnotperceivethesentencetoconsistofthesephonologicalwords: kwixʔidclubbedi-da-bəgwanəmaPIVOT-the-maniχ-a-q'asahit-the-otters-isi-t'alwagwayuwith-hisi-clubkwixʔidi-da-bəgwanəmaχ-a-q'asas-isi-t'alwagwayuclubbedPIVOT-the-manihit-the-otterwith-hisi-club AcentralpublicationonthistopicisthevolumeeditedbyDixonandAikhenvald(2002),examiningthemismatchbetweenprosodic-phonologicalandgrammaticaldefinitionsof"word"invariousAmazonian,AustralianAboriginal,Caucasian,Eskimo,Indo-European,NativeNorthAmerican,WestAfrican,andsignlanguages.Apparently,awidevarietyoflanguagesmakeuseofthehybridlinguisticunitclitic,possessingthegrammaticalfeaturesofindependentwordsbuttheprosodic-phonologicallackoffreedomofboundmorphemes.Theintermediatestatusofcliticsposesaconsiderablechallengetolinguistictheory.[12] Inflectionvs.wordformation[edit] Giventhenotionofalexeme,itispossibletodistinguishtwokindsofmorphologicalrules.Somemorphologicalrulesrelatetodifferentformsofthesamelexeme;whileotherrulesrelatetodifferentlexemes.Rulesofthefirstkindareinflectionalrules,whilethoseofthesecondkindarerulesofwordformation.[13]ThegenerationoftheEnglishpluraldogsfromdogisaninflectionalrule,whilecompoundphrasesandwordslikedogcatcherordishwasherareexamplesofwordformation.Informally,wordformationrulesform"new"words(moreaccurately,newlexemes),whileinflectionrulesyieldvariantformsofthe"same"word(lexeme). Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionandwordformationisnotatallclearcut.Therearemanyexampleswherelinguistsfailtoagreewhetheragivenruleisinflectionorwordformation.Thenextsectionwillattempttoclarifythisdistinction. Wordformationisaprocesswhereonecombinestwocompletewords,whereaswithinflectionyoucancombineasuffixwithsomeverbtochangeitsformtosubjectofthesentence.Forexample:inthepresentindefinite,weuse‘go’withsubjectI/we/you/theyandpluralnouns,whereasforthirdpersonsingularpronouns(he/she/it)andsingularnounsweuse‘goes’.Sothis‘-es’isaninflectionalmarkerandisusedtomatchwithitssubject.Afurtherdifferenceisthatinwordformation,theresultantwordmaydifferfromitssourceword'sgrammaticalcategorywhereasintheprocessofinflectionthewordneverchangesitsgrammaticalcategory. Typesofwordformation[edit] Mainarticle:Wordformation Thereisafurtherdistinctionbetweentwoprimarykindsofmorphologicalwordformation:derivationandcompounding.Compoundingisaprocessofwordformationthatinvolvescombiningcompletewordformsintoasinglecompoundform.Dogcatcher,therefore,isacompound,asbothdogandcatcherarecompletewordformsintheirownrightbutaresubsequentlytreatedaspartsofoneform.Derivationinvolvesaffixingbound(i.e.non-independent)formstoexistinglexemes,wherebytheadditionoftheaffixderivesanewlexeme.Thewordindependent,forexample,isderivedfromtheworddependentbyusingtheprefixin-,whiledependentitselfisderivedfromtheverbdepend.Thereisalsowordformationintheprocessesofclippinginwhichaportionofawordisremovedtocreateanewone,blendinginwhichtwopartsofdifferentwordsareblendedintoone,acronymsinwhicheachletterofthenewwordrepresentsaspecificwordintherepresentationi.e.NATOforNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization,borrowinginwhichwordsfromonelanguagearetakenandusedinanother,andfinallycoinageinwhichanewwordiscreatedtorepresentanewobjectorconcept.[14] Paradigmsandmorphosyntax[edit] Linguistictypology Morphological Analytic Isolating Synthetic Fusional Agglutinative Polysynthetic Oligosynthetic Morphosyntactic Alignment Nominative–accusative Markednominative Ergative–absolutive Splitergative Symmetricalvoice Active–stative Tripartite Nominative–absolutive Direct-inverse Ditransitive/Monotransitive Secundative Indirective Zero-marking Dependent-marking Double-marking Head-marking Null-subject Syntacticpivot Thetarole Wordorder VOlanguages Subject–verb–object Verb–subject–object Verb–object–subject OVlanguages Subject–object–verb Object–subject–verb Object–verb–subject V1wordorder V2wordorder OSwordorder Freewordorder Time–manner–place Place–manner–time Lexicon Colorterms Numerals vte Alinguisticparadigmisthecompletesetofrelatedwordformsassociatedwithagivenlexeme.Thefamiliarexamplesofparadigmsaretheconjugationsofverbsandthedeclensionsofnouns.Also,arrangingthewordformsofalexemeintotables,byclassifyingthemaccordingtosharedinflectionalcategoriessuchastense,aspect,mood,number,genderorcase,organizessuch.Forexample,thepersonalpronounsinEnglishcanbeorganizedintotables,usingthecategoriesofperson(first,second,third);number(singularvs.plural);gender(masculine,feminine,neuter);andcase(nominative,oblique,genitive). Theinflectionalcategoriesusedtogroupwordformsintoparadigmscannotbechosenarbitrarily;theymustbecategoriesthatarerelevanttostatingthesyntacticrulesofthelanguage.PersonandnumberarecategoriesthatcanbeusedtodefineparadigmsinEnglish,becauseEnglishhasgrammaticalagreementrulesthatrequiretheverbinasentencetoappearinaninflectionalformthatmatchesthepersonandnumberofthesubject.Therefore,thesyntacticrulesofEnglishcareaboutthedifferencebetweendoganddogs,becausethechoicebetweenthesetwoformsdetermineswhichformoftheverbisused.However,there'snosyntacticruleforthedifferencebetweendoganddogcatcher,ordependentandindependent.Thefirsttwoarenounsandthesecondtwoareadjectives. Animportantdifferencebetweeninflectionandwordformationisthatinflectedwordformsoflexemesareorganizedintoparadigmsthataredefinedbytherequirementsofsyntacticrules,andtherearenocorrespondingsyntacticrulesforwordformation. Therelationshipbetweensyntaxandmorphology,andthewayinwhichtheyinteract,iscalled"morphosyntax";[15][16]thistermisalsousedtounderlinethefactthatsyntaxandmorphologyareinterrelated.[17]Thestudyofmorphosyntaxconcernsitselfwithinflectionandparadigms,andsomeapproachestomorphosyntaxexcludefromitsdomainthephenomenaofwordformation,compoundingandderivation.[15]Withinmorphosyntaxfallthestudyofagreementandgovernment.[15] Allomorphy[edit] Above,morphologicalrulesaredescribedasanalogiesbetweenwordforms:dogistodogsascatistocatsandasdishistodishes.Inthiscase,theanalogyappliesbothtotheformofthewordsandtotheirmeaning:ineachpair,thefirstwordmeans"oneofX",whilethesecond"twoormoreofX",andthedifferenceisalwaysthepluralform-s(or-es)affixedtothesecondword,signalingthekeydistinctionbetweensingularandpluralentities. Oneofthelargestsourcesofcomplexityinmorphologyisthatthisone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenmeaningandformscarcelyappliestoeverycaseinthelanguage.InEnglish,therearewordformpairslikeox/oxen,goose/geese,andsheep/sheep,wherethedifferencebetweenthesingularandthepluralissignaledinawaythatdepartsfromtheregularpattern,orisnotsignaledatall.Evencasesregardedasregular,suchas-s,arenotsosimple;the-sindogsisnotpronouncedthesamewayasthe-sincats;and,inpluralssuchasdishes,avowelisaddedbeforethe-s.Thesecases,wherethesamedistinctioniseffectedbyalternativeformsofa"word",constituteallomorphy.[18] Phonologicalrulesconstrainwhichsoundscanappearnexttoeachotherinalanguage,andmorphologicalrules,whenappliedblindly,wouldoftenviolatephonologicalrules,byresultinginsoundsequencesthatareprohibitedinthelanguageinquestion.Forexample,toformthepluralofdishbysimplyappendingan-stotheendofthewordwouldresultintheform*[dɪʃs],whichisnotpermittedbythephonotacticsofEnglish.Inorderto"rescue"theword,avowelsoundisinsertedbetweentherootandthepluralmarker,and[dɪʃɪz]results.Similarrulesapplytothepronunciationofthe-sindogsandcats:itdependsonthequality(voicedvs.unvoiced)ofthefinalprecedingphoneme. Lexicalmorphology[edit] Lexicalmorphologyisthebranchofmorphologythatdealswiththelexicon,which,morphologicallyconceived,isthecollectionoflexemesinalanguage.Assuch,itconcernsitselfprimarilywithwordformation:derivationandcompounding. Models[edit] Therearethreeprincipalapproachestomorphologyandeachtriestocapturethedistinctionsaboveindifferentways: Morpheme-basedmorphology,whichmakesuseofanitem-and-arrangementapproach. Lexeme-basedmorphology,whichnormallymakesuseofanitem-and-processapproach. Word-basedmorphology,whichnormallymakesuseofaword-and-paradigmapproach. Whiletheassociationsindicatedbetweentheconceptsineachiteminthatlistareverystrong,theyarenotabsolute. Morpheme-basedmorphology[edit] Morpheme-basedmorphologytreeoftheword"independently" Inmorpheme-basedmorphology,wordformsareanalyzedasarrangementsofmorphemes.Amorphemeisdefinedastheminimalmeaningfulunitofalanguage.Inawordsuchasindependently,themorphemesaresaidtobein-,de-,pend,-ent,and-ly;pendisthe(bound)rootandtheothermorphemesare,inthiscase,derivationalaffixes.[d]Inwordssuchasdogs,dogistherootandthe-sisaninflectionalmorpheme.Initssimplestandmostnaïveform,thiswayofanalyzingwordforms,called"item-and-arrangement",treatswordsasiftheyweremadeofmorphemesputaftereachother("concatenated")likebeadsonastring.Morerecentandsophisticatedapproaches,suchasdistributedmorphology,seektomaintaintheideaofthemorphemewhileaccommodatingnon-concatenated,analogical,andotherprocessesthathaveprovenproblematicforitem-and-arrangementtheoriesandsimilarapproaches. Morpheme-basedmorphologypresumesthreebasicaxioms:[19] Baudouin’s"singlemorpheme"hypothesis:Rootsandaffixeshavethesamestatusasmorphemes. Bloomfield’s"signbase"morphemehypothesis:Asmorphemes,theyaredualisticsigns,sincetheyhaveboth(phonological)formandmeaning. Bloomfield's"lexicalmorpheme"hypothesis:morphemes,affixesandrootsalikearestoredinthelexicon. Morpheme-basedmorphologycomesintwoflavours,oneBloomfieldian[20]andoneHockettian.[21]ForBloomfield,themorphemewastheminimalformwithmeaning,butdidnothavemeaningitself.[clarificationneeded]ForHockett,morphemesare"meaningelements",not"formelements".Forhim,thereisamorphemepluralusingallomorphssuchas-s,-enand-ren.Withinmuchmorpheme-basedmorphologicaltheory,thetwoviewsaremixedinunsystematicwayssoawritermayreferto"themorphemeplural"and"themorpheme-s"inthesamesentence. Lexeme-basedmorphology[edit] Lexeme-basedmorphologyusuallytakeswhatiscalledanitem-and-processapproach.Insteadofanalyzingawordformasasetofmorphemesarrangedinsequence,awordformissaidtobetheresultofapplyingrulesthatalteraword-formorsteminordertoproduceanewone.Aninflectionalruletakesastem,changesitasisrequiredbytherule,andoutputsawordform;[22]aderivationalruletakesastem,changesitasperitsownrequirements,andoutputsaderivedstem;acompoundingruletakeswordforms,andsimilarlyoutputsacompoundstem. Word-basedmorphology[edit] Word-basedmorphologyis(usually)aword-and-paradigmapproach.Thetheorytakesparadigmsasacentralnotion.Insteadofstatingrulestocombinemorphemesintowordformsortogeneratewordformsfromstems,word-basedmorphologystatesgeneralizationsthatholdbetweentheformsofinflectionalparadigms.Themajorpointbehindthisapproachisthatmanysuchgeneralizationsarehardtostatewitheitheroftheotherapproaches.Word-and-paradigmapproachesarealsowell-suitedtocapturingpurelymorphologicalphenomena,suchasmorphomes.Examplestoshowtheeffectivenessofword-basedapproachesareusuallydrawnfromfusionallanguages,whereagiven"piece"ofaword,whichamorpheme-basedtheorywouldcallaninflectionalmorpheme,correspondstoacombinationofgrammaticalcategories,forexample,"third-personplural".Morpheme-basedtheoriesusuallyhavenoproblemswiththissituationsinceonesaysthatagivenmorphemehastwocategories.Item-and-processtheories,ontheotherhand,oftenbreakdownincaseslikethesebecausetheyalltoooftenassumethattherewillbetwoseparateruleshere,oneforthirdperson,andtheotherforplural,butthedistinctionbetweenthemturnsouttobeartificial.Theapproachestreattheseaswholewordsthatarerelatedtoeachotherbyanalogicalrules.Wordscanbecategorizedbasedonthepatterntheyfitinto.Thisappliesbothtoexistingwordsandtonewones.Applicationofapatterndifferentfromtheonethathasbeenusedhistoricallycangiverisetoanewword,suchasolderreplacingelder(whereolderfollowsthenormalpatternofadjectivalsuperlatives)andcowsreplacingkine(wherecowsfitstheregularpatternofpluralformation). Morphologicaltypology[edit] Mainarticle:Morphologicaltypology Inthe19thcentury,philologistsdevisedanowclassicclassificationoflanguagesaccordingtotheirmorphology.Somelanguagesareisolating,andhavelittletonomorphology;othersareagglutinativewhosewordstendtohavemanyeasilyseparablemorphemes;othersyetareinflectionalorfusionalbecausetheirinflectionalmorphemesare"fused"together.Thatleadstooneboundmorphemeconveyingmultiplepiecesofinformation.AstandardexampleofanisolatinglanguageisChinese.AnagglutinativelanguageisTurkish.LatinandGreekareprototypicalinflectionalorfusionallanguages. Itisclearthatthisclassificationisnotatallclearcut,andmanylanguages(LatinandGreekamongthem)donotneatlyfitanyoneofthesetypes,andsomefitinmorethanoneway.Acontinuumofcomplexmorphologyoflanguagemaybeadopted. Thethreemodelsofmorphologystemfromattemptstoanalyzelanguagesthatmoreorlessmatchdifferentcategoriesinthistypology.Theitem-and-arrangementapproachfitsverynaturallywithagglutinativelanguages.Theitem-and-processandword-and-paradigmapproachesusuallyaddressfusionallanguages. Asthereisverylittlefusioninvolvedinwordformation,classicaltypologymostlyappliestoinflectionalmorphology.Dependingonthepreferredwayofexpressingnon-inflectionalnotions,languagesmaybeclassifiedassynthetic(usingwordformation)oranalytic(usingsyntacticphrases). Examples[edit] PingelapeseisaMicronesianlanguagespokenonthePingelapatollandontwooftheeasternCarolineIslands,calledthehighislandofPohnpei.Similartootherlanguages,wordsinPingelapesecantakedifferentformstoaddtoorevenchangeitsmeaning.Verbalsuffixesaremorphemesaddedattheendofawordtochangeitsform.Prefixesarethosethatareaddedatthefront.Forexample,thePingelapesesuffix–kinmeans‘with’or'at.’Itisaddedattheendofaverb. ius=touse→ius-kin=tousewith mwahu=tobegood→mwahu-kin=tobegoodat sa-isanexampleofaverbalprefix.Itisaddedtothebeginningofawordandmeans‘not.’ pwung=tobecorrect→sa-pwung=tobeincorrect Therearealsodirectionalsuffixesthatwhenaddedtotherootwordgivethelistenerabetterideaofwherethesubjectisheaded.Theverbalumeanstowalk.Adirectionalsuffixcanbeusedtogivemoredetail. -da=‘up’→aluh-da=towalkup -di=‘down’→aluh-di=towalkdown -eng=‘awayfromspeakerandlistener’→aluh-eng=towalkaway Directionalsuffixesarenotlimitedtomotionverbs.Whenaddedtonon-motionverbs,theirmeaningsareafigurativeone.Thefollowingtablegivessomeexamplesofdirectionalsuffixesandtheirpossiblemeanings.[23] Directionalsuffix Motionverb Non-motionverb -da up Onsetofastate -di down Actionhasbeencompleted -la awayfrom Changehascausedthestartofanewstate -doa towards Actioncontinuedtoacertainpointintime -sang from Comparative Seealso[edit] Morphome(linguistics) Footnotes[edit] ^Fürdielerevonderwortformwäleichdaswort« morphologie»,nachdemvorgangedernaturwißenschaften[...](StandardHighGerman"FürdieLehrevonderWortformwähleichdasWort„Morphologie“,nachdemVorgangederNaturwissenschaften[...]","Forthescienceofword-formation,Ichoosetheterm"morphology"...." ^FormerlyknownasKwakiutl,Kwak'walabelongstotheNorthernbranchoftheWakashanlanguagefamily."Kwakiutl"isstillusedtorefertothetribeitself,alongwithotherterms. ^ExampletakenfromFoley(1998)usingamodifiedtranscription.ThisphenomenonofKwak'walawasreportedbyJacobsenascitedinvanValin&LaPolla(1997). ^TheexistenceofwordslikeappendixandpendinginEnglishdoesnotmeanthattheEnglishworddependisanalyzedintoaderivationalprefixde-andarootpend.Whileallthosewereindeedoncerelatedtoeachotherbymorphologicalrules,thatwasonlythecaseinLatin,notinEnglish.EnglishborrowedsuchwordsfromFrenchandLatinbutnotthemorphologicalrulesthatallowedLatinspeakerstocombinede-andtheverbpendere'tohang'intothederivativedependere. References[edit] ^Jones,Daniel(2003)[1917],PeterRoach;JamesHartmann;JaneSetter(eds.),EnglishPronouncingDictionary,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 3-12-539683-2 ^Anderson,StephenR.(n.d.)."Morphology".EncyclopediaofCognitiveScience.MacmillanReference,Ltd.,YaleUniversity.Retrieved30July2016. ^Aronoff,Mark;Fudeman,Kirsten(n.d.)."MorphologyandMorphologicalAnalysis"(PDF).WhatisMorphology?.BlackwellPublishing.Retrieved30July2016. ^Brown,Dunstan(December2012)[2010]."MorphologicalTypology"(PDF).InJaeJungSong(ed.).TheOxfordHandbookofLinguisticTypology.pp. 487–503.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199281251.013.0023.Retrieved30July2016. ^Sankin,A.A.(1979)[1966]."I.Introduction"(PDF).InGinzburg,R.S.;Khidekel,S.S.;Knyazeva,G.Y.;Sankin,A.A.(eds.).ACourseinModernEnglishLexicology(RevisedandEnlarged,Second ed.).Moscow:VYSŠAJAŠKOLA.p. 7.Retrieved30July2016. ^Wilson-Fowler,E.B.,&Apel,K.(2015)."InfluenceofMorphologicalAwarenessonCollegeStudents'LiteracySkills:ApathAnalyticApproach".JournalofLiteracyResearch.47(3):405–32.doi:10.1177/1086296x15619730.S2CID 142149285. ^Beard,Robert(1995).Lexeme-MorphemeBaseMorphology:AGeneralTheoryofInflectionandWordFormation.Albany:NY:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.pp. 2,3.ISBN 0-7914-2471-5. ^Åkesson2001. ^Schleicher,August(1859)."ZurMorphologiederSprache".Mémoiresdel'AcadémieImpérialedesSciencesdeSt.-Pétersbourg.VII°.Vol. I,N.7.St.Petersburg.p. 35. ^Haspelmath&Sims2002,p. 15. ^Haspelmath&Sims2002,p. 16. ^Word :across-linguistictypology.RobertM.W.Dixon,A.I︠U︡.Aĭkhenvalʹd.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.2002.ISBN 978-0-511-48624-1.OCLC 704513339.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:others(link) ^Anderson,StephenR.(1992).A-MorphousMorphology.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 74,75.ISBN 9780521378666. ^Plag,Ingo(2003)."WordFormationinEnglish"(PDF).LibraryofCongress.Cambridge.Retrieved2016-11-30. ^abc DufterandStark(2017)Introduction-2Syntaxandmorphosyntax:somebasicnotionsinDufter,Andreas,andStark,Elisabeth(eds.,2017)ManualofRomanceMorphosyntaxandSyntax,WalterdeGruyterGmbH&CoKG ^EmilyM.Bender(2013)LinguisticFundamentalsforNaturalLanguageProcessing:100EssentialsfromMorphologyandSyntax,ch.4Morphosyntax,p.35,Morgan&ClaypoolPublishers ^VanValin,R.D.,vanValinJr,R.D.,vanValinJr,R.D.,LaPolla,R.J.,&LaPolla,R.J.(1997)Syntax:Structure,meaning,andfunction,p.2,CambridgeUniversityPress. ^Haspelmath,Martin;Sims,AndreaD.(2002).UnderstandingMorphology.London:Arnold.ISBN 0-340-76026-5. ^Beard1995. ^Bloomfield1993.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFBloomfield1993(help) ^Hockett1947. ^Bybee,JoanL.(1985).Morphology:AStudyoftheRelationBetweenMeaningandForm.Amsterdam:JohnBenjamins.pp. 11,13. ^Hattori,Ryoko(2012).PreverbalParticlesinPingelapese.pp. 31–33. Furtherreading[edit] Aronoff,Mark(1993).MorphologybyItself.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.ISBN 9780262510721. Aronoff,Mark(2009)."Morphology:aninterviewwithMarkAronoff"(PDF).ReVEL.7(12).ISSN 1678-8931.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on2011-07-06.. Åkesson,Joyce(2001).Arabicmorphologyandphonology:basedontheMarāḥal-arwāḥbyAḥmadb.ʻAlīb.Masʻūd.Leiden,TheNetherlands:Brill.ISBN 9789004120280. Bauer,Laurie(2003).Introducinglinguisticmorphology(2nd ed.).Washington,DC:SGeorgetownUniversityPress.ISBN 0-87840-343-4. Bauer,Laurie(2004).Aglossaryofmorphology.Washington,DC:GeorgetownUniversityPress. Bloomfield,Leonard(1933).Language.NewYork:HenryHolt.OCLC 760588323. Bubenik,Vit(1999).Anintroductiontothestudyofmorphology.LINCOMcoursebooksinlinguistics,07.Muenchen:LINCOMEuropa.ISBN 3-89586-570-2. Dixon,R.M.W.;Aikhenvald,AlexandraY.,eds.(2007).Word:Across-linguistictypology.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. Foley,WilliamA(1998).SymmetricalVoiceSystemsandPrecategorialityinPhilippineLanguages(Speech).VoiceandGrammaticalFunctionsinAustronesian.UniversityofSydney.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2006-09-25. Hockett,CharlesF.(1947)."Problemsofmorphemicanalysis".Language.23(4):321–343.doi:10.2307/410295.JSTOR 410295. Fabrega,Antonio;Scalise,Sergio(2012).Morphology:fromDatatoTheory.Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress. Katamba,Francis(1993).Morphology.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.ISBN 0-312-10356-5. Korsakov,AndreyKonstantinovich(1969)."TheuseoftensesinEnglish".InKorsakov,AndreyKonstantinovich(ed.).StructureofModernEnglishpt.1. Kishorjit,N;VidyaRaj,RK;Nirmal,Y;Sivaji,B.(December2012).ManipuriMorphemeIdentification(PDF)(Speech).Proceedingsofthe3rdWorkshoponSouthandSoutheastAsianNaturalLanguageProcessing(SANLP).Mumbai:COLING. Matthews,Peter(1991).Morphology(2nded.).CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-42256-6. Mel'čuk,IgorA(1993).Coursdemorphologiegénérale(inFrench).Montreal:Pressesdel'UniversitédeMontréal. Mel'čuk,IgorA(2006).Aspectsofthetheoryofmorphology.Berlin:Mouton. Scalise,Sergio(1983).GenerativeMorphology.Dordrecht:Foris. Singh,Rajendra;Starosta,Stanley,eds.(2003).ExplorationsinSeamlessMorphology.SAGE.ISBN 0-7619-9594-3. Spencer,Andrew(1991).Morphologicaltheory:anintroductiontowordstructureingenerativegrammar.Blackwelltextbooksinlinguistics.Oxford:Blackwell.ISBN 0-631-16144-9. Spencer,Andrew;Zwicky,ArnoldM.,eds.(1998).Thehandbookofmorphology.Blackwellhandbooksinlinguistics.Oxford:Blackwell.ISBN 0-631-18544-5. Stump,GregoryT.(2001).Inflectionalmorphology:atheoryofparadigmstructure.Cambridgestudiesinlinguistics.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-78047-0. vanValin,RobertD.;LaPolla,Randy(1997).Syntax :Structure,MeaningAndFunction.CambridgeUniversityPress. 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