The Qing Dynasty: China's Last Imperial Age - Chinese ...

Founded by Manchu warriors, the Qing dynasty was once a continental force to be reckoned with. Stretching across the entire eastern half of ... TheQingDynasty:China’sLastImperialAgeHugoVanderMerweFebruary22,2022ChineseHistoryFoundedbyManchuwarriors,theQingdynastywasonceacontinentalforcetobereckonedwith.StretchingacrosstheentireeasternhalfofEurasia,ithadtributarystatesfromSiamtoSikkim.BythetimethatthelastQingemperorsatonthethrone,however,ithadalreadybeenthevictimofmultipleinvasionsandrebellionsandwasteeteringonthebrinkofeconomiccollapse.Readontodiscoverhowthisdramaticstoryunfolded. TableofContentsThefoundingTheMingTheManchuAvictoriousrebellionTheprosperousageExpansionbylandandbyseaThetributariesWiseemperorsThecollapseTheTaipingRebellionTheFirstSino-JapaneseWarTheBoxerRebellionThefallRememberingtheQingtodayQingdynastyvocabulary Thefounding TounderstandthestoryoftheQing,it'snecessarytogainabasicunderstandingofthedynastythatprecededthem:theMing. TheMing TheMingdynasty(明朝Míngcháo)startedthewayalmostallChinesedynastiesstart:asarebellion.AfteroverthrowingtheMongol-dominatedYuanDynasty(元朝Yuáncháo),theethnicallyHanMingrulersassertedcontrolin1368CE. UnderthegreatYongleemperor,theMingexpandedthefrontiersofChinaandusheredinaperiodofprosperity.Inadecisivebreakwiththepast,theYongleemperoralsomovedthecapitaltothenorth,givingitthename“northern(北běi)capital(京jīng),”orBeijing(北京Běijīng). Aftermanyyearsofneglect,MingrulersresurrectedtheruinsofthatmostChineseofengineeringmarvels:theGreatWallofChina.PeasantsweredispatchedindrovestofortifythiscrumblingpieceofChina’sdefensivepatrimony. UndertheYongleEmperor’sleadership,MingChina’sfrontiersexpandedandthedynastyprospered. In1420,attheheightoftheirpower,theMingrulersalsolaunchedthelargestexploratoryfleettheworldhadeverseen.UndertheguidanceofadmiralZhengHe,theMingdynastybecamerenownedthroughouttheworld.HisjourneystookhimthroughouttheIndianocean,Indonesia,theArabworld,aswellastotheeasterncoastofAfrica.ThegiraffethattheexpeditionbroughtbacktoBeijingwasasensation. Likewise,Mingrulesawtheflourishingofthearts.Tothisday,elegant,intricatelypatternedMingvasesarebestsellersatartauctionsaroundtheworld. However,theMingwerenotimmunetothecyclicaltaleofdynasticrise,decadence,andfall.Bythe16thcentury,peasantsacrosstheempirewererisingagainstthelocalgovernment,incoherenteconomicpolicieshadledtofiscalcollapse,andinternalelitedivisionsandcourtintriguehadtakenonfeverishdimensions. Meanwhile,non-HansubjectpeopleshadrejectedeventhepretenseofsubmissionandweremakingregularmilitaryincursionsintoMingterritory.Successiveeconomiccrisesandgeneraldissatisfactionwithapoliticalelitehadstokedtheflamesofrevolution.Oneoftheserebelliousnon-Hangroups,theManchu,wouldgoontooverthrowtheMingandfoundtheQingdynasty. AstheMingdynastydeclinedandfell,thelivesofmembersoftheHanelite,liketheartistShitao(picturedhere)werethrownintodisarray. TheManchu Thepurposefuldestructionoftheirearliestrecords,therepeatedrewritingofManchuhistory,andthesinicizationthateventuallyovertookthemmakesforaconfusedManchuoriginstory.Eventhename“Manchu”wasalateinvention,chosenbythefoundingQingemperortoobscurethefactthathisancestors(thenknownastheJurchenpeople)hadoncebeensubjecttotheMingemperor. WhatwedoknowabouttheoriginalManchupeopleisthattheyweredescendentsoftherulersofthe10thcenturyJinDynasty(晋朝Jìncháo).TheManchuhadabandonedtheirnomadicwaysandbeensettledagriculturalistsforcenturiesbythetimetheyfoundedtheQingdynasty.However,theystillemphasizedmasteryoftraditionalskillslikeoutdoorsmanship,hunting,fishing,andequestrianability.Anotherdeeplyingrainedculturaltraitwasafascinationwithfalconry—eventoday,onefindsthistraditionaliveandwell. Originallyanomadicpeople,theManchusoftheQingdynastyvaluedmasteryoftraditionalskillslikehorsebackriding. Renownedfortheirskillasmountedarchers(anabilitythatwastocomeinhandywhentheysweptoutofnortheasternChinatoshattertheMingDynasty),theyhuntedsmallgameonhorsebackforbothfood,sport,andprestige. Culturally,theManchumaintainedacomparativelyhighlevelofgenderequality,withwomenhavingalargersayinthehouseholdandbeingpermittedmoreroominthepublicspherethantheirHanpeers. Originallyfollowersofashamanisticreligionthatrevolvedaroundtheappeasementoftheancestors,aftertheirascenttopowertheywereincreasinglydrawntoConfucianpractices,eventuallyembracingandpatronizingTibetanBuddhism.ManyofthemagnificentBuddhisttemplesthatdotBeijingaretheresultofQingpiety. AlthoughtheManchuswereoncefollowersoftheirownshamanisticreligion,theyeventuallycametoembraceBuddhism. Avictoriousrebellion BeforeoverthrowingtheMing,theManchuswerebasedinnorthernChina.ThefirstthreeQingemperorslivedinMukdenPalace,inpresent-dayShenyang.Fromthere,theywagedarelentlessrebellionagainsttheMing. Afterseveralyearsofwar,ManchurebelssackedandoccupiedtheMingcapitalofBeijingin1644.Onahilloverlookingtheburningcity,thelastMingemperorcommittedsuicide. Indesperation,theMinggeneralwhomannedoneofthecentralgatesoftheGreatWallthatledintoChinaproperturnedtotheManchus,invitingthemtojoinhiminreclaimingthecapitalinthenameofthedeademperor.Uponsuccessfullyretakingthecapital,theManchupromptlydecidedthat,infact,theyhadnodesiretoreturnthecapitaltotheMing. TheManchudeclaredthattheywerenowinpossessionoftheMandateofHeavenandmovedtheircapitaltoBeijing.AlthoughtheconquestofChinawasonlycompletedin1683becauseofresistancefromMingloyalistsandotherrebelsinthesouth,theQing’stimehadarrived. Aftermanyyearsofwar,theManchurebelsfinallyovercametheMingresistancein1693. Theprosperousage Theperiodfrom1683and1839isknownastheHighQingera.InChinese,it’salsosometimescalledthe‘ProsperousAgeofKangxi,YongzhengandQianlong’(康雍乾盛世KāngYōngQiánShèngshì)inreferencetotheemperorswhoruledoverthisperiodofgoodfortune. ShrewdQinggovernance(borrowingthebestpracticesoftheMingConfucianbureaucracywhilestillallowingforadaptationandinnovation)ledtoaprolongedperiodofeconomicandpoliticalstability. Insteadofattemptingtouprootandreplacetheinstitutionsofthepreviousdynasty,theQingpresentedtheManchuimperialsystemasanoutgrowthoftheHanConfuciansystem.LoyaltytotheQingwasequatedwithloyaltytotheancestors. Thisperiodofstabilityledtoaburgeoningpopulationwhichinturngaverisetoanincreasedtaxbase.Thisvirtuouscyclecontinuedforanumberofdecades. TheManchudisplayedatalentforco-optingHantraditionstosuittheirownneeds. Expansionbylandandbysea From1750to1790,theQingempirereacheditsgreatestterritorialextent.TheQianlongEmperorledatotaloftenrelentlesscampaignsintoinnerAsiawhichextendedQingdominionoverwidestretchesoflandthathadpreviouslybeenoutsideofChinaproper. Tibet,HainanandTaiwanallsubmittedtoQingrule.Similarly,theconquestofwhatistodayMongoliawascompletedinaseriesofexpeditionsinthelatterhalfofthe17thcentury.QingarmiesalsoconqueredwhatisnowXinjianginaseriesofcampaignsbetween1755-1758. TheQingatitsheightwasthefourthlargestempireinhistory,rulingover5millionsquaremiles(13millionsquarekilometres)ofterritory.FromtheHimalayasinthewesttotheGobiinthenorth,450millionpeoplelivedanddiedundertheruleoftheQingemperor,knownasthesonofheaven. Initsheyday,theQingwasthefourthlargestempireinthehistoryoftheworld. Thetributaries Alreadyin1636,beforetheformalestablishmentoftheQingDynasty,theemperorHongTaijihadinvadedKorea.UndertheQing,Koreawasforcedintowhatwasknownasthe册封体制(cèfēngtǐzhì)orthetributarysystem.Underthissystem,envoyswererequiredtocometotheroyalcourt,presentgifts,andkowtowtotheemperor,acknowledginghissuperiority.Formanyyears,accesstoChinesetradewasmadecontingentonacceptingthetermsofthetributarysystemwhichrequiredthattributariesrecognizetheemperorastheoneandonlySonofHeaven. Inpractice,thissystemcontainedamultitudeofgradationsofactualcontrol.Somecountries,likeVietnamandKorea,weretightlycontrolledfordecadesandwereessentiallyvassalstatesoftheempire. Others,suchastheKatoordynastyinAfghanistan,weremuchlesstightlyboundtothecrown,althoughtheystillsenttributarygiftsandrecognizedthesovereigntyoftheQingemperor. Underthetributarysystem,therulersofmanyofthestatesborderingChinawereexpectedtopresentgiftstotheQingemperor. Wiseemperors Attheirbest,Qingemperorsdisplayedaknackforborrowingideas,cuisinesandtitlesfromtheirvastarrayofsubjectpeoples.Forexample,ininteractionswiththeirHansubjects,QingemperorsutilizedtheChinese皇帝(huángdì),whileamongMongolsubjects,theyinsteadborrowedthemorelocallyresonanttitle“BogdKhaan.”Likewise,amongtheTibetans,theywereknownasGongMa. Theuseofsuchtacticshelpsexplainhowtheywereabletoholdtogethertheirsprawling,multi-ethnicempireusingadelicatebalanceofpersuasion,attraction,andcoercion. Specificemperors’personalitieswerealsokeytomaintainingthisbalancingact.Luckily,theQingwereblessed(especiallyintheearlyyears)withanumberofwiseemperors. HongTaijwasthefoundingemperoroftheQingdynastyandcertainlyamongthegreatestinhisline.HiscentralinsightwasunderstandingtheneedtoattracttheethnicallyHanChinesetotheQingcause.Hisfather,Nurhaci,hadlegalizeddiscriminationagainsthisHansubjectsandplacedtheminapositionofsubserviencetotheManchu.Theseactionshadmadethemunwillingtojointheranksofthebureaucracyorthearmyandevenpromptedanumberofpeasantrebellions. HongTajireversedthesepolicies,incorporatingHanmenintothemilitary.HealsoadoptedmanyelementsoftheConfucianbureaucracywhichhelpedkeepthenascentempire’swheels spinning. Xuanye,knownastheKangxiEmperor,wasanothermasterofunitingawidearrayofinterestsintheQingcause.Forexample,hesawJesuitmissionariesasvaluablesourcesofmilitary,mathematical,cartographic,andastronomicalknowledgeandemployedtheminhiscourt.DespiteresistancefromConfuciantraditionalists,heknewthatknowingmoreabouthowthewiderworldoperatedwouldmakeChinastronger. TheKangxiEmperorwasawiserulerwhoenlistedthehelpofJesuitmissionariestoexpandQingunderstandingoftheoutsideworld. Thecollapse ThereasonsbehindtheQingdynasty’sultimatedisintegrationaremanifold.However,theycanbesummarizedas:economicmismanagement,foreignpredation,elitedisconnect,andconsequentrebellion. TheTaipingRebellion TheoutbreakoftheTaipingRebellioninthemid-19thcenturywasthefirstsignthatthefoundationsoftheQingempirewerebeginningtocrack.Thiswasalsothefirsttimethatanti-Manchusentimentwasweaponizedatscale. TherebellionwasledbytheyoungandcharismaticHongXiuquan.HeclaimedtobethebrotherofJesusChristandtohavereceivedvisionsfromGoddirectinghimtobuildautopiansocietydevoidofthedailytormentsofpeasantlife.Thesocietyhebelievedhehadbeentaskedwithestablishingwasknownasthe‘KingdomofHeavenlyPeace.’Seducedbyhispromisesofabetterlife,millionsofpeasantsflockedtohisyellow,dragon-emblazonedbanner. IncrushingtheKingdomofHeavenlyPeace,theQingwerepitiless. Thechaosoftheeramakesexactrecordsdifficulttocomeby,butitislikely(whenconsideredinrelationtoworldpopulationatthetime)thattheTaipingRebellionwasthebloodiestwarinworldhistory.From1850to1864,between20and30millionpeoplelosttheirlives.AmelangeofnaturaldisastersandbrutalityonthepartofQinggeneralsturnedlargeswathesofChinaintoanuninhabitablewasteland. Bytheendofthe14-yearwar,Qingforceshadregainedcontroloftheempire—butataterriblecost:millionsdead,thousandsofhectaresoffarmlanddestroyed,andChina’sinternationalstandingpermanentlytaintedbyhavingbeenforcedtocallonthemilitarysupportofFranceandtheUnitedKingdom. TheTaipingRebellionmayhavebeenthebloodiestwarinworldhistory. TheFirstSino-JapaneseWar TheFirstSino-JapaneseWar(1894-1895)wasahighwatermarkintherepeatedhumiliationsofChinainthefaceofforeignarmies.Formillennia,ChinahadovershadowedJapanandjealouslyguardeditspositionofcentralityinAsiausingthetributarysystem. Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,however,Japanhadmodernizeditsmilitaryandeconomyandwaseagertoflexitsnewfoundmuscle.Afteryearsofdiplomaticslights,JapanwasnowpreparedtojostleopenlywithChinaforcontrolofterritory,namelytheKoreanpeninsulaandTaiwan. Inamereeightmonths,Japanhadachievedallofitsmilitaryobjectives.Despitetheirnewfangledtrainingandattemptedmodernization(partofwhatisknownasthe‘TongzhiRestoration’),China’sarmieshadnonethelessperformedpoorlyonthebattlefield.TheblowtoChineseprestigewasswiftandsevere. TheFirstSino-Japanesewarwasfurtherprooftotheotherhungrycolonialpowers(suchasFrance,theUK,andGermany)thatwhenpushcametoshove,Chinacouldnolongerofferrealresistancetotheirintrusions,commercialorotherwise. ThelossoftheFirstSino-JapaneseWarwasamajorblowtoQingprestige. TheBoxerRebellion WhatbecameknownastheBoxerRebellionhammeredthefinalnailintothealreadydecayingcoffinoftheQingempire. Named“Boxers”bytheChristianmissionarieswhoobservedthemtraininginmartialarts,theRighteousandHarmoniousFists(义和拳Yìhéquán),wereasecretsocietythatoriginatedintheShandongregion.Yearsofseveredroughtandeconomicmalaisehadcreatedahugesurpluspopulationofunemployedyouths.ThiswasthemainrecruitmentbasefortheBoxers. TheircentraltenetswereacommitmenttopurgingChinaofforeignersandChristianity.TheRebellionkickedoffinearnestin1900.Aforceofbetween50and100thousandboxersmarchedonBeijing,intentonbesiegingtheforeignquarterandexpellingorexecutingtheforeigners. TheQingEmpressDowagerCixi,caughtbetweenencroachingwesternforcesontheonesideandtensofthousandsofenragedBoxermilitiamembersontheother,sidedwiththeBoxersandformallydeclaredwarontheforeigners. TheforeignpowersusedthedefenseoftheirbesiegedenvoysandmerchantsasapretexttoinvadeChina.A20,000strongmilitarycoalitioncalledtheEight-NationAllianceconsistingofAmerican,Austro-Hungarian,British,French,German,Italian,Japanese,andRussianforcescrushedtheBoxersandenteredthecapital. TheEmpressDowagerfledthecapitalforXi’an,buteventuallyshewasforcedtosigntheBoxerProtocol,adocumentthatauthorizedthepermanentplacementofforeigntroopsinBeijing,theexecutionofgovernmentofficialswhohadgivenaidtotheBoxers,andthepaymentofcripplingreparations. FollowingthesigningoftheBoxerProtocol,theQingdynastywouldsurviveonlyanother10years. QingEmpressDowagerCiximadethefatefuldecisiontosupporttheBoxersduringtheBoxerRebellion. Thefall By1911,theempirehadreacheditsbreakingpoint. Corruptionwasrampantandovert.TheossificationofQingeliteshadcreatedaparasiticclasswholackedtheabilitytoadapttoafastchangingworld.Decadesofeconomicweaknesshadundercutthetaxbaseandtheburgeoningpopulationthathadoncebeenasourceofstrengthnowonlyservedtoswelltheranksoftherebelgroupsthatproliferatedthroughouttheempire. ThearrivalofthetechnologicallysuperiorWesternandJapanesepowers(whocollectivelyenforcedwhatinChinaaretermedthe“UnequalTreaties”)andtheunbearableyokeofreparationsimposedaftertheBoxerRebellion,hadcreatedanuntenablesituation. Korea,TaiwanandVietnamhadalreadybeenwrenchedoutofthetributaryorbit.BythetimethatPuyi,thelastQingemperor,hadcometopower,theempirewasripeforcollapse. Foryearstherehadbeeninternalcallsforreformationandrevolution.QingdecadencehadcreatedanatmosphereinwhichChineseintellectualsweredesperatetofindawayforChinatoreclaimitscentralplaceinworldaffairs.ProsperityandanendtotherepeatedhumiliationsthatChinahadsufferedatthehandsofforeignpowersmotivatedthemtoact. ForemostamongthesefigureswasSunYat-sen,thefatherofmodernChina.Statesman,physician,politicalphilosopher,SunYat-senwasatirelesscampaignerforanindependent,powerful,andwealthyChina,andhebelievedthatarepublicanformofgovernmentwouldbestservethesegoals.Byrallyingtohiscauseanideologicallydiversebandoffollowershewould,afteralifetimeoftoil,eventuallysucceedinfoundingtheRepublicofChina. Afteryearsofviolentcontestation,awaveofrebellionsswepttheempire.Withnootherchoiceleft,thechildemperorPuyiwasforcedtoabdicate,bringingChina’simperialsystemtoanabruptend.WiththedepartureofPuyi,theQingempirediedandtheRepublicofChinawasborn. TheRepublicofChinacameintobeingaftertheQingcollapsedinthewakeofarmedrebellion. RememberingtheQingtoday ThelegacyofChina’slastimperialdynastyremainsapointofcontentiontothisday. Onemajorlong-termeffectofQingdominationwasanascentsenseofnationalismamongtheHanChinese.DuringthewaningyearsoftheQingempire,anti-Manchusentimentservedasapowerfulmotivationforthosewhowishedtoresistorreformtheregime.EmphasizingtheManchu(andsubsequentlyforeign)natureoftheQingimperialfamilyandhighlightingtheHanoriginsofthemajorityoftheChinesepopulationwasapowerfulwaytomobilizepeopleagainsttheQingrulers. However,somescholarshavetakenanotherapproachtoQinghistoryinrecentyears.InsteadofviewingtheQingasforeignandalientoChina,therehasbeenapushtounderlinetheachievementsofthisperiodofChinesehistoryandtakeprideinthistimewhen(particularlyduringtheHighQingera)ChinawasadominantandunvanquishedforceinAsiaandtheworld. Ultimately,theQingdynasty’swealthofculturalachievements,itsdramaticupsanddowns,andthesheerlengthoftimethatitruleditsvastempiremeansthatithasthecapacitytobeinterpretedandreinterpretedinmyriadways. Forbetterorworse,thelegacyoftheQingdynastycontinuestoinfluenceChinatothisday. Qingdynastyvocabulary HànzìPīnyīnDefinition 明朝MíngcháotheMingdynasty 元朝YuáncháotheYuandynasty 北běinorth,northern 京jīngcapital 晋朝JìncháotheJindynasty 清朝QīngcháotheQingDynasty 康雍乾盛世KāngYōngQiánShèngshìHighQingera;ProsperousAgeofKangxi,YongzhengandQianlong 册封体制(cèfēngtǐzhì)thetributarysystem 皇帝huángdìemperor 义和拳YìhéquánTheRighteousandHarmoniousFists;theBoxers Free30-minuteTrialLessonFree30-minuteTrialLesson ContinueExploring ChineseHistory TheTangDynasty:China’sGoldenAge ChineseHistory WhatDIDConfuciussay? ChineseHistory HistoryoftheGreatWallofChina ✕LearnChinesewithaliveteacher.Signuptoday!YourChineseteacherwillcallyouonZoomorSkypeforyourChineselessons.LearnMoreNowTryForFree Home Programs AboutUs ExperienceCLI ContactUs EnrollNow Languages [email protected](888)781-8383PRC(+86)0773-759-9367Copyright2022 | Terms&Conditions | FAQ | LearnChineseinChina closearrow-circle-o-downfacebook-squarelinkedin-squaretwitterbarschevron-circle-upyoutube-playinstagram