Roman Britain - Wikipedia

Roman Britain was the period in classical antiquity when large parts of the island of Great Britain were under occupation by the Roman Empire. RomanBritain FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch BritainunderRomanrule(43AD-c.410AD) Nottobeconfusedwiththe1980stageplayTheRomansinBritain. ProvinceofBritainProvinciaBritannia  (Latin)ProvinceoftheRomanEmpire43 AD–c. 410ProvinceofBritanniawithintheRomanEmpire(125AD)CapitalCamulodunumLondiniumHistoryHistoricaleraClassicalantiquity• AnnexedbyClaudius43 AD• SeveranDivisionc. 197• DiocletianDivisionc. 296• EndofdirectRomanrulec. 410 Precededby Succeededby BritishIronAge Sub-RomanBritain Todaypartof UnitedKingdom  ∟England  ∟Wales  ∟Scotland PeriodsinEnglishhistory  PrehistoricBritainuntilc.43ADBritishIronAgec.800BCRomanBritainc.43–410Sub-RomanBritainc.400s–late500sAnglo-Saxonc.500–1066Norman1066–1154Plantagenet1154–1485Tudor1485–1603 Elizabethan1558–1603Stuart1603–1714 Jacobean1603–1625Caroline1625–1649(Interregnum)1649–1660Restoration1660–1714GeorgianBritain1714–1837 RegencyBritain1811–1820VictorianBritain1837–1901EdwardianBritain1901–1914FirstWorldWar1914–1918InterwarBritain1919–1939SecondWorldWar1939–1945PostwarBritain(Political)1945–1979PostwarBritain(Social)1945–1979 Seealso Politicalhistory(1979–present) Socialhistory(1979–present) Timelinevte RomanBritainwastheperiodinclassicalantiquitywhenlargepartsoftheislandofGreatBritainwereunderoccupationbytheRomanEmpire.TheoccupationlastedfromAD 43toAD 410.[1]: 129–131 [2]Duringthattime,theterritoryconqueredwasraisedtothestatusofaRomanprovince. JuliusCaesarinvadedBritainin55and54 BCaspartofhisGallicWars.[3][4]AccordingtoCaesar,theBritonshadbeenoverrunorculturallyassimilatedbyotherCeltictribesduringtheBritishIronAgeandhadbeenaidingCaesar'senemies.[5]Hereceivedtribute,installedthefriendlykingMandubraciusovertheTrinovantes,andreturnedtoGaul.PlannedinvasionsunderAugustuswerecalledoffin34,27,and25 BC.In40 AD,Caligulaassembled200,000menattheChannelonthecontinent,onlytohavethemgatherseashells(musculi)accordingtoSuetonius,perhapsasasymbolicgesturetoproclaimCaligula'svictoryoverthesea.[6]Threeyearslater,ClaudiusdirectedfourlegionstoinvadeBritainandrestoretheexiledkingVericaovertheAtrebates.[7]TheRomansdefeatedtheCatuvellauni,andthenorganizedtheirconquestsastheProvinceofBritain(Latin:ProvinciaBritannia).By47AD,theRomansheldthelandssoutheastoftheFosseWay.ControloverWaleswasdelayedbyreversesandtheeffectsofBoudica'suprising,buttheRomansexpandedsteadilynorthward. TheconquestofBritaincontinuedundercommandofGnaeusJuliusAgricola(77–84),whoexpandedtheRomanEmpireasfarasCaledonia.Inmid-84AD,AgricolafacedthearmiesoftheCaledonians,ledbyCalgacus,attheBattleofMonsGraupius.BattlecasualtieswereestimatedbyTacitustobeupwardsof10,000ontheCaledoniansideandabout360ontheRomanside.ThebloodbathatMonsGraupiusconcludedtheforty-yearconquestofBritain,aperiodthatpossiblysawbetween100,000and250,000Britonskilled.[8]Inthecontextofpre-industrialwarfareandofatotalpopulationofBritainofc.2million,theseareveryhighfigures.[9] Underthe2nd-centuryemperorsHadrianandAntoninusPius,twowallswerebuilttodefendtheRomanprovincefromtheCaledonians,whoserealmsintheScottishHighlandswerenevercontrolled.Around197AD,theSeveranReformsdividedBritainintotwoprovinces:BritanniaSuperiorandBritanniaInferior.[10]DuringtheDiocletianReforms,attheendofthe3rdcentury,Britanniawasdividedintofourprovincesunderthedirectionofavicarius,whoadministeredtheDioceseoftheBritains.[11]Afifthprovince,Valentia,isattestedinthelater4thcentury.FormuchofthelaterperiodoftheRomanoccupation,Britanniawassubjecttobarbarianinvasionsandoftencameunderthecontrolofimperialusurpersandimperialpretenders.ThefinalRomanwithdrawalfromBritainoccurredaround410;thenativekingdomsareconsideredtohaveformedSub-RomanBritainafterthat. FollowingtheconquestoftheBritons,adistinctiveRomano-BritishcultureemergedastheRomansintroducedimprovedagriculture,urbanplanning,industrialproduction,andarchitecture.TheRomangoddessBritanniabecamethefemalepersonificationofBritain.Aftertheinitialinvasions,RomanhistoriansgenerallyonlymentionBritaininpassing.Thus,mostpresentknowledgederivesfromarchaeologicalinvestigationsandoccasionalepigraphicevidencelaudingtheBritannicachievementsofanemperor.[1]: 46, 323 RomancitizenssettledinBritainfrommanypartsoftheEmpire.[12] Contents 1History 1.1Earlycontact 1.2Romaninvasion 1.3Romanruleisestablished 1.4OccupationofandretreatfromsouthernScotland 1.53rdcentury 1.6Diocletian'sreforms 1.74thcentury 1.8EndofRomanrule 1.9Sub-RomanBritain 2Trade 3Economy 4Government 5Demographics 5.1Townandcountry 6Religion 6.1Pagan 6.2Christianity 7Environmentalchanges 8Legacy 9Seealso 10References 11Furtherreading 11.1IronAgebackground 11.2GeneralworksonRomanBritain 11.3Historicalsourcesandinscriptions 11.4Trade 11.5Economy 11.6Provincialgovernment 11.7Provincialdevelopment 11.8TheRomanmilitaryinBritain 11.9Urbanlife 11.10Rurallife 11.11Religion 11.12Art 12Externallinks History[edit] Earlycontact[edit] Mainarticle:Caesar'sinvasionsofBritain LandingofJuliusCaesar BritainwasknowntotheClassicalworld.TheGreeks,thePhoeniciansandtheCarthaginianstradedforCornishtininthe4thcenturyBC.[13]TheGreeksreferredtotheCassiterides,or"tinislands",andplacedthemnearthewestcoastofEurope.[14]TheCarthaginiansailorHimilcoissaidtohavevisitedtheislandinthe6thor5thcenturyBCandtheGreekexplorerPytheasinthe4th.Itwasregardedasaplaceofmystery,withsomewritersrefusingtobelieveitexisted.[15] ThefirstdirectRomancontactwaswhenJuliusCaesarundertooktwoexpeditionsin55and54BC,aspartofhisconquestofGaul,believingtheBritonswerehelpingtheGallicresistance.ThefirstexpeditionwasmoreareconnaissancethanafullinvasionandgainedafootholdonthecoastofKentbutwasunabletoadvancefurtherbecauseofstormdamagetotheshipsandalackofcavalry.Despitethemilitaryfailureitwasapoliticalsuccess,withtheRomanSenatedeclaringa20-daypublicholidayinRometohonourtheunprecedentedachievementofobtaininghostagesfromBritainanddefeatingBelgictribesonreturningtothecontinent.[16] ThesecondinvasioninvolvedasubstantiallylargerforceandCaesarcoercedorinvitedmanyofthenativeCeltictribestopaytributeandgivehostagesinreturnforpeace.Afriendlylocalking,Mandubracius,wasinstalled,andhisrival,Cassivellaunus,wasbroughttoterms.Hostagesweretaken,buthistoriansdisagreeoverwhetheranytributewaspaidafterCaesarreturnedtoGaul.[17] Caesarconquerednoterritoryandleftnotroopsbehind,butheestablishedclientsandbroughtBritainintoRome'ssphereofinfluence.Augustusplannedinvasionsin34,27and25BC,butcircumstanceswereneverfavourable,[18]andtherelationshipbetweenBritainandRomesettledintooneofdiplomacyandtrade.Strabo,writinglateinAugustus'sreign,claimedthattaxesontradebroughtinmoreannualrevenuethananyconquestcould.[19]ArchaeologyshowsthattherewasanincreaseinimportedluxurygoodsinsoutheasternBritain.[20]StraboalsomentionsBritishkingswhosentembassiestoAugustus,andAugustus'sownResGestaereferstotwoBritishkingshereceivedasrefugees.[21]WhensomeofTiberius'sshipswerecarriedtoBritaininastormduringhiscampaignsinGermanyin16AD,theycamebackwithtalesofmonsters.[22] RomeappearstohaveencouragedabalanceofpowerinsouthernBritain,supportingtwopowerfulkingdoms:theCatuvellauni,ruledbythedescendantsofTasciovanus,andtheAtrebates,ruledbythedescendantsofCommius.[23]Thispolicywasfolloweduntil39or40AD,whenCaligulareceivedanexiledmemberoftheCatuvellauniandynastyandplannedaninvasionofBritainthatcollapsedinfarcicalcircumstancesbeforeitleftGaul.[24][25]WhenClaudiussuccessfullyinvadedin43AD,itwasinaidofanotherfugitiveBritishruler,VericaoftheAtrebates. Romaninvasion[edit] Mainarticle:RomanconquestofBritain LandingoftheRomansontheCoastofKent(Cassell'sHistoryofEngland,Vol.I–anonymousauthorandartists,1909) Theinvasionforcein43ADwasledbyAulusPlautius,[26]butitisunclearhowmanylegionsweresent.TheLegioIIAugusta,commandedbyfutureemperorVespasian,wastheonlyonedirectlyattestedtohavetakenpart.[27]TheIXHispana,[28]theXIVGemina(laterstyledMartiaVictrix)andtheXX(laterstyledValeriaVictrix)[29]areknowntohaveservedduringtheBoudicanRevoltof60/61,andwereprobablytheresincetheinitialinvasion.ThisisnotcertainbecausetheRomanarmywasflexible,withunitsbeingmovedaroundwhenevernecessary.TheLegioIXHispanamayhavebeenpermanentlystationed,withrecordsshowingitatEboracum(York)in71andonabuildinginscriptiontheredated108,beforebeingdestroyedintheeastoftheEmpire,possiblyduringtheBarKokhbarevolt.[30] TheinvasionwasdelayedbyatroopmutinyuntilanimperialfreedmanpersuadedthemtoovercometheirfearofcrossingtheOceanandcampaigningbeyondthelimitsoftheknownworld.Theysailedinthreedivisions,andprobablylandedatRichboroughinKent;atleastpartoftheforcemayhavelandednearFishbourne,WestSussex.[31] ConquestsunderAulusPlautius,focusedonthecommerciallyvaluablesoutheastofBritain TheCatuvellauniandtheiralliesweredefeatedintwobattles:thefirst,assumingaRichboroughlanding,ontheriverMedway,thesecondontheriverThames.Oneoftheirleaders,Togodumnus,waskilled,buthisbrotherCaratacussurvivedtocontinueresistanceelsewhere.PlautiushaltedattheThamesandsentforClaudius,whoarrivedwithreinforcements,includingartilleryandelephants,forthefinalmarchtotheCatuvellauniancapital,Camulodunum(Colchester).Vespasiansubduedthesouthwest,[32]Cogidubnuswassetupasafriendlykingofseveralterritories,[33]andtreatiesweremadewithtribesoutsidedirectRomancontrol. Romanruleisestablished[edit] Furtherinformation:Romano-Britishculture RomaninvasionofBritain Romancampaigns43–60 Agricola'scampaigns Aftercapturingthesouthoftheisland,theRomansturnedtheirattentiontowhatisnowWales.TheSilures,OrdovicesandDeceangliremainedimplacablyopposedtotheinvadersandforthefirstfewdecadeswerethefocusofRomanmilitaryattention,despiteoccasionalminorrevoltsamongRomanalliesliketheBrigantesandtheIceni.TheSilureswereledbyCaratacus,andhecarriedoutaneffectiveguerrillacampaignagainstGovernorPubliusOstoriusScapula.Finally,in51,OstoriusluredCaratacusintoaset-piecebattleanddefeatedhim.TheBritishleadersoughtrefugeamongtheBrigantes,buttheirqueen,Cartimandua,provedherloyaltybysurrenderinghimtotheRomans.HewasbroughtasacaptivetoRome,whereadignifiedspeechhemadeduringClaudius'striumphpersuadedtheemperortosparehislife.TheSilureswerestillnotpacified,andCartimandua'sex-husbandVenutiusreplacedCaratacusasthemostprominentleaderofBritishresistance.[34] OnNero'saccessionRomanBritainextendedasfarnorthasLindum.GaiusSuetoniusPaulinus,theconquerorofMauretania(moderndayAlgeriaandMorocco),thenbecamegovernorofBritain,andin60and61hemovedagainstMona(Anglesey)tosettleaccountswithDruidismonceandforall.PaulinusledhisarmyacrosstheMenaiStraitandmassacredtheDruidsandburnttheirsacredgroves. WhilePaulinuswascampaigninginMona,thesoutheastofBritainroseinrevoltundertheleadershipofBoudica.BoudicawasthewidowoftherecentlydeceasedkingoftheIceni,Prasutagus.TheRomanhistorianTacitusreportsthatPrasutagushadleftawillleavinghalfhiskingdomtoNerointhehopethattheremainderwouldbeleftuntouched.Hewaswrong.Whenhiswillwasenforced,Romerespondedbyviolentlyseizingthetribe'slandsinfull.Boudicaprotested.Inconsequence,Romepunishedherandherdaughtersbyfloggingandrape.Inresponse,theIceni,joinedbytheTrinovantes,destroyedtheRomancolonyatCamulodunum(Colchester)androutedthepartoftheIXthLegionthatwassenttorelieveit.PaulinusrodetoLondon(thencalledLondinium),therebels'nexttarget,butconcludeditcouldnotbedefended.Abandoned,itwasdestroyed,aswasVerulamium(St.Albans).Betweenseventyandeightythousandpeoplearesaidtohavebeenkilledinthethreecities.ButPaulinusregroupedwithtwoofthethreelegionsstillavailabletohim,choseabattlefield,and,despitebeingoutnumberedbymorethantwentytoone,defeatedtherebelsintheBattleofWatlingStreet.Boudicadiednotlongafterwards,byself-administeredpoisonorbyillness.[35][36][37]Duringthistime,theEmperorNeroconsideredwithdrawingRomanforcesfromBritainaltogether.[38] TempleboroughRomanfortinSouthYorkshire.ThereconstructionwascreatedforRotherhamMuseumsandGalleries. Therewasfurtherturmoilin69,the"YearoftheFourEmperors".AscivilwarragedinRome,weakgovernorswereunabletocontrolthelegionsinBritain,andVenutiusoftheBrigantesseizedhischance.TheRomanshadpreviouslydefendedCartimanduaagainsthim,butthistimewereunabletodoso.Cartimanduawasevacuated,andVenutiuswasleftincontrolofthenorthofthecountry.AfterVespasiansecuredtheempire,hisfirsttwoappointmentsasgovernor,QuintusPetilliusCerialisandSextusJuliusFrontinus,tookonthetaskofsubduingtheBrigantesandSiluresrespectively.[39][40]FrontinusextendedRomanruletoallofSouthWales,andinitiatedexploitationofthemineralresources,suchasthegoldminesatDolaucothi. Inthefollowingyears,theRomansconqueredmoreoftheisland,increasingthesizeofRomanBritain.GovernorGnaeusJuliusAgricola,father-in-lawtothehistorianTacitus,conqueredtheOrdovicesin78.WiththeXXValeriaVictrixlegion,AgricoladefeatedtheCaledoniansin84attheBattleofMonsGraupius,innorth-eastScotland.[41]Thiswasthehigh-watermarkofRomanterritoryinBritain:shortlyafterhisvictory,AgricolawasrecalledfromBritainbacktoRome,andtheRomansinitiallyretiredtoamoredefensiblelinealongtheForth–Clydeisthmus,[citationneeded]freeingsoldiersbadlyneededalongotherfrontiers. FormuchofthehistoryofRomanBritain,alargenumberofsoldiersweregarrisonedontheisland.Thisrequiredthattheemperorstationatrustedseniormanasgovernoroftheprovince.Asaresult,manyfutureemperorsservedasgovernorsorlegatesinthisprovince,includingVespasian,Pertinax,andGordianI. Romanmilitaryorganisationinthenorth In84AD In155AD OccupationofandretreatfromsouthernScotland[edit] Furtherinformation:ScotlandduringtheRomanEmpire Furtherinformation:Hadrian'sWall Furtherinformation:AntonineWall ThereisnohistoricalsourcedescribingthedecadesthatfollowedAgricola'srecall.Eventhenameofhisreplacementisunknown.ArchaeologyhasshownthatsomeRomanfortssouthoftheForth–Clydeisthmuswererebuiltandenlarged;othersappeartohavebeenabandoned.By87thefrontierhadbeenconsolidatedontheStanegate.RomancoinsandpotteryhavebeenfoundcirculatingatnativesettlementsitesintheScottishLowlandsintheyearsbefore100,indicatinggrowingRomanisation.SomeofthemostimportantsourcesforthiseraarethewritingtabletsfromthefortatVindolandainNorthumberland,mostlydatingto90–110.ThesetabletsprovideevidencefortheoperationofaRomanfortattheedgeoftheRomanEmpire,whereofficers'wivesmaintainedpolitesocietywhilemerchants,hauliersandmilitarypersonnelkeptthefortoperationalandsupplied. Around105thereappearstohavebeenaserioussetbackatthehandsofthetribesofthePicts:severalRomanfortsweredestroyedbyfire,withhumanremainsanddamagedarmouratTrimontium(atmodernNewstead,inSEScotland)indicatinghostilitiesatleastatthatsite.[citationneeded]ThereisalsocircumstantialevidencethatauxiliaryreinforcementsweresentfromGermany,andanunnamedBritishwaroftheperiodismentionedonthegravestoneofatribuneofCyrene.Trajan'sDacianWarsmayhaveledtotroopreductionsintheareaoreventotalwithdrawalfollowedbyslightingofthefortsbythePictsratherthananunrecordedmilitarydefeat.TheRomanswerealsointhehabitofdestroyingtheirownfortsduringanorderlywithdrawal,inordertodenyresourcestoanenemy.Ineithercase,thefrontierprobablymovedsouthtothelineoftheStanegateattheSolway–Tyneisthmusaroundthistime. Hadrian'sWallviewedlookingeastfromVercovicium(Housesteads) PrimaEuropetabula.A1486copyofPtolemy's2nd-centurymapofRomanBritain AnewcrisisoccurredatthebeginningofHadrian'sreign(117):arisinginthenorthwhichwassuppressedbyQuintusPompeiusFalco.WhenHadrianreachedBritanniaonhisfamoustouroftheRomanprovincesaround120,hedirectedanextensivedefensivewall,knowntoposterityasHadrian'sWall,tobebuiltclosetothelineoftheStanegatefrontier.HadrianappointedAulusPlatoriusNeposasgovernortoundertakethisworkwhobroughttheLegioVIVictrixlegionwithhimfromGermaniaInferior.ThisreplacedthefamousLegioIXHispana,whosedisappearancehasbeenmuchdiscussed.ArchaeologyindicatesconsiderablepoliticalinstabilityinScotlandduringthefirsthalfofthe2ndcentury,andtheshiftingfrontieratthistimeshouldbeseeninthiscontext. InthereignofAntoninusPius(138–161)theHadrianicborderwasbrieflyextendednorthtotheForth–Clydeisthmus,wheretheAntonineWallwasbuiltaround142followingthemilitaryreoccupationoftheScottishlowlandsbyanewgovernor,QuintusLolliusUrbicus. ThefirstAntonineoccupationofScotlandendedasaresultofafurthercrisisin155–157,whentheBrigantesrevolted.Withlimitedoptionstodespatchreinforcements,theRomansmovedtheirtroopssouth,andthisrisingwassuppressedbyGovernorGnaeusJuliusVerus.WithinayeartheAntonineWallwasrecaptured,butby163or164itwasabandoned.ThesecondoccupationwasprobablyconnectedwithAntoninus'sundertakingstoprotecttheVotadiniorhisprideinenlargingtheempire,sincetheretreattotheHadrianicfrontieroccurrednotlongafterhisdeathwhenamoreobjectivestrategicassessmentofthebenefitsoftheAntonineWallcouldbemade.TheRomansdidnotentirelywithdrawfromScotlandatthistime:thelargefortatNewsteadwasmaintainedalongwithsevensmalleroutpostsuntilatleast180. Duringthetwenty-yearperiodfollowingthereversionofthefrontiertoHadrian'sWallin163/4,Romewasconcernedwithcontinentalissues,primarilyproblemsintheDanubianprovinces.IncreasingnumbersofhoardsofburiedcoinsinBritainatthistimeindicatethatpeacewasnotentirelyachieved.SufficientRomansilverhasbeenfoundinScotlandtosuggestmorethanordinarytrade,anditislikelythattheRomanswerereinforcingtreatyagreementsbypayingtributetotheirimplacableenemies,thePicts. In175,alargeforceofSarmatiancavalry,consistingof5,500men,arrivedinBritannia,probablytoreinforcetroopsfightingunrecordeduprisings.In180,Hadrian'sWallwasbreachedbythePictsandthecommandingofficerorgovernorwaskilledthereinwhatCassiusDiodescribedasthemostseriouswarofthereignofCommodus.UlpiusMarcelluswassentasreplacementgovernorandby184hehadwonanewpeace,onlytobefacedwithamutinyfromhisowntroops.UnhappywithMarcellus'sstrictness,theytriedtoelectalegatenamedPriscusasusurpergovernor;herefused,butMarcelluswasluckytoleavetheprovincealive.TheRomanarmyinBritanniacontinueditsinsubordination:theysentadelegationof1,500toRometodemandtheexecutionofTigidiusPerennis,aPraetorianprefectwhotheyfelthadearlierwrongedthembypostinglowlyequitestolegateranksinBritannia.CommodusmetthepartyoutsideRomeandagreedtohavePerenniskilled,butthisonlymadethemfeelmoresecureintheirmutiny. ThefutureemperorPertinaxwassenttoBritanniatoquellthemutinyandwasinitiallysuccessfulinregainingcontrol,butariotbrokeoutamongthetroops.Pertinaxwasattackedandleftfordead,andaskedtoberecalledtoRome,wherehebrieflysucceededCommodusasemperorin192. 3rdcentury[edit] ThedeathofCommodusputintomotionaseriesofeventswhicheventuallyledtocivilwar.FollowingtheshortreignofPertinax,severalrivalsfortheemperorshipemerged,includingSeptimiusSeverusandClodiusAlbinus.ThelatterwasthenewgovernorofBritannia,andhadseeminglywonthenativesoveraftertheirearlierrebellions;healsocontrolledthreelegions,makinghimapotentiallysignificantclaimant.HissometimerivalSeveruspromisedhimthetitleofCaesarinreturnforAlbinus'ssupportagainstPescenniusNigerintheeast.OnceNigerwasneutralised,SeverusturnedonhisallyinBritannia —itislikelythatAlbinussawhewouldbethenexttargetandwasalreadypreparingforwar. AlbinuscrossedtoGaulin195,wheretheprovinceswerealsosympathetictohim,andsetupatLugdunum.SeverusarrivedinFebruary196,andtheensuingbattlewasdecisive.Albinuscameclosetovictory,butSeverus'sreinforcementswontheday,andtheBritishgovernorcommittedsuicide.SeverussoonpurgedAlbinus'ssympathisersandperhapsconfiscatedlargetractsoflandinBritainaspunishment. AlbinushaddemonstratedthemajorproblemposedbyRomanBritain.Inordertomaintainsecurity,theprovincerequiredthepresenceofthreelegions;butcommandoftheseforcesprovidedanidealpowerbaseforambitiousrivals.Deployingthoselegionselsewherewouldstriptheislandofitsgarrison,leavingtheprovincedefencelessagainstuprisingsbythenativeCeltictribesandagainstinvasionbythePictsandScots. ThetraditionalviewisthatnorthernBritaindescendedintoanarchyduringAlbinus'sabsence.CassiusDiorecordsthatthenewGovernor,ViriusLupus,wasobligedtobuypeacefromafractiousnortherntribeknownastheMaeatae.ThesuccessionofmilitarilydistinguishedgovernorswhoweresubsequentlyappointedsuggeststhatenemiesofRomewereposingadifficultchallenge,andLuciusAlfenusSenecio'sreporttoRomein207describesbarbarians"rebelling,over-runningtheland,takinglootandcreatingdestruction".Inordertorebel,ofcourse,onemustbeasubject —theMaeataeclearlydidnotconsiderthemselvessuch.SeneciorequestedeitherreinforcementsoranImperialexpedition,andSeveruschosethelatter,despitebeing62yearsold. ArchaeologicalevidenceshowsthatSeneciohadbeenrebuildingthedefencesofHadrian'sWallandthefortsbeyondit,andSeverus'sarrivalinBritainpromptedtheenemytribestosueforpeaceimmediately.Theemperorhadnotcomeallthatwaytoleavewithoutavictory,anditislikelythathewishedtoprovidehisteenagesonsCaracallaandGetawithfirst-handexperienceofcontrollingahostilebarbarianland. Northerncampaigns,208–211 AninvasionofCaledonialedbySeverusandprobablynumberingaround20,000troopsmovednorthin208or209,crossingtheWallandpassingthrougheasternScotlandonaroutesimilartothatusedbyAgricola.Harriedbypunishingguerrillaraidsbythenortherntribesandslowedbyanunforgivingterrain,SeveruswasunabletomeettheCaledoniansonabattlefield.Theemperor'sforcespushednorthasfarastheRiverTay,butlittleappearstohavebeenachievedbytheinvasion,aspeacetreatiesweresignedwiththeCaledonians.By210SeverushadreturnedtoYork,andthefrontierhadonceagainbecomeHadrian'sWall.HeassumedthetitleBritannicusbutthetitlemeantlittlewithregardtotheunconquerednorth,whichclearlyremainedoutsidetheauthorityoftheEmpire.Almostimmediately,anothernortherntribe,theMaeatae,wenttowar.Caracallaleftwithapunitiveexpedition,butbythefollowingyearhisailingfatherhaddiedandheandhisbrotherlefttheprovincetopresstheirclaimtothethrone. Asoneofhislastacts,SeverustriedtosolvetheproblemofpowerfulandrebelliousgovernorsinBritainbydividingtheprovinceintoBritanniaSuperiorandBritanniaInferior.Thiskeptthepotentialforrebellionincheckforalmostacentury.Historicalsourcesprovidelittleinformationonthefollowingdecades,aperiodknownastheLongPeace.Evenso,thenumberofburiedhoardsfoundfromthisperiodrises,suggestingcontinuingunrest.AstringoffortswerebuiltalongthecoastofsouthernBritaintocontrolpiracy;andoverthefollowinghundredyearstheyincreasedinnumber,becomingtheSaxonShoreForts. Duringthemiddleofthe3rdcentury,theRomanEmpirewasconvulsedbybarbarianinvasions,rebellionsandnewimperialpretenders.Britanniaapparentlyavoidedthesetroubles,butincreasinginflationhaditseconomiceffect.In259aso-calledGallicEmpirewasestablishedwhenPostumusrebelledagainstGallienus.Britanniawaspartofthisuntil274whenAurelianreunitedtheempire. Aroundtheyear280,ahalf-BritishofficernamedBonosuswasincommandoftheRoman'sRhenishfleetwhentheGermansmanagedtoburnitatanchor.Toavoidpunishment,heproclaimedhimselfemperoratColoniaAgrippina(Cologne)butwascrushedbyMarcusAureliusProbus.Soonafterwards,anunnamedgovernorofoneoftheBritishprovincesalsoattemptedanuprising.ProbusputitdownbysendingirregulartroopsofVandalsandBurgundiansacrosstheChannel. TheCarausianRevoltledtoashort-livedBritannicEmpirefrom286to296.CarausiuswasaMenapiannavalcommanderoftheBritannicfleet;herevolteduponlearningofadeathsentenceorderedbytheemperorMaximianonchargesofhavingabettedFrankishandSaxonpiratesandhavingembezzledrecoveredtreasure.HeconsolidatedcontroloveralltheprovincesofBritainandsomeofnorthernGaulwhileMaximiandealtwithotheruprisings.Aninvasionin288failedtounseathimandanuneasypeaceensued,withCarausiusissuingcoinsandinvitingofficialrecognition.In293,thejunioremperorConstantiusChloruslaunchedasecondoffensive,besiegingtherebelportofGesoriacum(Boulogne-sur-Mer)bylandandsea.Afteritfell,ConstantiusattackedCarausius'sotherGallicholdingsandFrankishalliesandCarausiuswasusurpedbyhistreasurer,Allectus.JuliusAsclepiodotuslandedaninvasionfleetnearSouthamptonanddefeatedAllectusinalandbattle.[42][43][44][45] Diocletian'sreforms[edit] Mainarticles:BritanniaI,BritanniaII,FlaviaCaesariensis,MaximaCaesariensis,andValentia(Romanprovince) OnepossiblearrangementofthelateRomanprovinces,withValentiabetweenthewalls Anotherpossiblearrangement,withotherpossibleplacementsofValentianoted AspartofDiocletian'sreforms,theprovincesofRomanBritainwereorganizedasadiocesegovernedbyavicariusunderapraetorianprefectwho,from318to331,wasJuniusBassuswhowasbasedatAugustaTreverorum(Trier). ThevicariuswasbasedatLondiniumastheprincipalcityofthediocese.[citationneeded]LondiniumandEboracumcontinuedasprovincialcapitalsandtheterritorywasdividedupintosmallerprovincesforadministrativeefficiency. CivilianandmilitaryauthorityofaprovincewasnolongerexercisedbyoneofficialandthegovernorwasstrippedofmilitarycommandwhichwashandedovertotheDuxBritanniarumby314.Thegovernorofaprovinceassumedmorefinancialduties(theprocuratorsoftheTreasuryministrywereslowlyphasedoutinthefirstthreedecadesofthe4thcentury).TheDuxwascommanderofthetroopsoftheNorthernRegion,primarilyalongHadrian'sWallandhisresponsibilitiesincludedprotectionofthefrontier.Hehadsignificantautonomydueinparttothedistancefromhissuperiors.[46] Thetasksofthevicariusweretocontrolandcoordinatetheactivitiesofgovernors;monitorbutnotinterferewiththedailyfunctioningoftheTreasuryandCrownEstates,whichhadtheirownadministrativeinfrastructure;andactastheregionalquartermaster-generalofthearmedforces.Inshort,asthesolecivilianofficialwithsuperiorauthority,hehadgeneraloversightoftheadministration,aswellasdirectcontrol,whilenotabsolute,overgovernorswhowerepartoftheprefecture;theothertwofiscaldepartmentswerenot. Theearly-4th-centuryVeronaList,thelate-4th-centuryworkofSextusRufus,andtheearly-5th-centuryListofOfficesandworkofPolemiusSilviusalllistfourprovincesbysomevariationofthenamesBritanniaI,BritanniaII,MaximaCaesariensis,andFlaviaCaesariensis;alloftheseseemtohaveinitiallybeendirectedbyagovernor(praeses)ofequestrianrank.The5th-centurysourceslistafifthprovincenamedValentiaandgiveitsgovernorandMaxima'saconsularrank.[47]AmmianusmentionsValentiaaswell,describingitscreationbyCountTheodosiusin369afterthequellingoftheGreatConspiracy.Ammianusconsidereditare-creationofaformerlylostprovince,[48]leadingsometothinktherehadbeenanearlierfifthprovinceunderanothername(maybetheenigmatic"Vespasiana"?[49]),andleadingotherstoplaceValentiabeyondHadrian'sWall,intheterritoryabandonedsouthoftheAntonineWall. Reconstructionsoftheprovincesandprovincialcapitalsduringthisperiodpartiallyrelyonecclesiasticalrecords.Ontheassumptionthattheearlybishopricsmimickedtheimperialhierarchy,scholarsusethelistofbishopsforthe314CouncilofArles.Unfortunately,thelistispatentlycorrupt:theBritishdelegationisgivenasincludingaBishop"Eborius"ofEboracumandtwobishops"fromLondinium"(onedecivitateLondinensiandtheotherdecivitatecoloniaLondinensium).[52]Theerrorisvariouslyemended:BishopUssherproposedColonia,[53]SeldenCol.orColon.Camalodun.,[54]andSpelmanColoniaCameloduni[55](allvariousnamesofColchester);[57]Gale[58]andBingham[59]offeredcoloniaLindiandHenry[60]ColoniaLindum(bothLincoln);andBishopStillingfleet[61]andFrancisThackerayreaditasascribalerrorofCiv.Col.Londin.foranoriginalCiv.Col.Leg.II(Caerleon).[51]OnthebasisoftheVeronaList,thepriestanddeaconwhoaccompaniedthebishopsinsomemanuscriptsareascribedtothefourthprovince. Inthe12thcentury,GeraldofWalesdescribedthesupposedlymetropolitanseesoftheearlyBritishchurchestablishedbythelegendarySS Faganand"Duvian".HeplacedBritanniaPrimainWalesandwesternEnglandwithitscapitalat"UrbsLegionum"(Caerleon);BritanniaSecundainKentandsouthernEnglandwithitscapitalat"Dorobernia"(Canterbury);FlaviainMerciaandcentralEnglandwithitscapitalat"Lundonia"(London);"Maximia"innorthernEnglandwithitscapitalatEboracum(York);andValentiain"AlbaniawhichisnowScotland"withitscapitalatSt Andrews.[62][63]Modernscholarsgenerallydisputethelast:someplaceValentiaatorbeyondHadrian'sWallbutSt AndrewsisbeyondeventheAntonineWallandGeraldseemstohavesimplybeensupportingtheantiquityofitschurchforpoliticalreasons. AcommonmodernreconstructionplacestheconsularprovinceofMaximaatLondinium,onthebasisofitsstatusastheseatofthediocesanvicarius;placesPrimainthewestaccordingtoGerald'straditionalaccountbutmovesitscapitaltoCoriniumoftheDobunni(Cirencester)onthebasisofanartifactrecoveredtherereferringtoLuciusSeptimius,aprovincialrector;placesFlavianorthofMaxima,withitscapitalplacedatLindumColonia(Lincoln)tomatchoneemendationofthebishopslistfromArles;[66]andplacesSecundainthenorthwithitscapitalatEboracum(York).ValentiaisplacedvariouslyinnorthernWalesaroundDeva(Chester);besideHadrian'sWallaroundLuguvalium(Carlisle);andbetweenthewallsalongDereStreet. 4thcentury[edit] Seealso:GreatConspiracy 4thcenturyRomantownsandvillas 4thcentury:DegreeofRomanisation EmperorConstantiusreturnedtoBritainin306,despitehispoorhealth,withanarmyaimingtoinvadenorthernBritain,theprovincialdefenceshavingbeenrebuiltintheprecedingyears.Littleisknownofhiscampaignswithscantarchaeologicalevidence,butfragmentaryhistoricalsourcessuggesthereachedthefarnorthofBritainandwonamajorbattleinearlysummerbeforereturningsouth.HissonConstantine(laterConstantinetheGreat)spentayearinnorthernBritainathisfather'sside,campaigningagainstthePictsbeyondHadrian'sWallinthesummerandautumn.[67][68]ConstantiusdiedinYorkinJuly306withhissonathisside.ConstantinethensuccessfullyusedBritainasthestartingpointofhismarchtotheimperialthrone,unliketheearlierusurper,Albinus. Inthemiddleofthecentury,theprovincewasloyalforafewyearstotheusurperMagnentius,whosucceededConstansfollowingthelatter'sdeath.AfterthedefeatanddeathofMagnentiusintheBattleofMonsSeleucusin353,ConstantiusIIdispatchedhischiefimperialnotaryPaulusCatenatoBritaintohuntdownMagnentius'ssupporters.Theinvestigationdeterioratedintoawitch-hunt,whichforcedthevicariusFlaviusMartinustointervene.WhenPaulusretaliatedbyaccusingMartinusoftreason,thevicariusattackedPauluswithasword,withtheaimofassassinatinghim,butintheendhecommittedsuicide. Asthe4thcenturyprogressed,therewereincreasingattacksfromtheSaxonsintheeastandtheScoti(Irish)inthewest.Aseriesoffortshadbeenbuilt,startingaround280,todefendthecoasts,butthesepreparationswerenotenoughwhen,in367,ageneralassaultofSaxons,Picts,ScotiandAttacotti,combinedwithapparentdissensioninthegarrisononHadrian'sWall,leftRomanBritainprostrate.TheinvadersoverwhelmedtheentirewesternandnorthernregionsofBritanniaandthecitiesweresacked.[69]Thiscrisis,sometimescalledtheBarbarianConspiracyortheGreatConspiracy,wassettledbyCountTheodosiusfrom368withastringofmilitaryandcivilreforms.TheodosiuscrossedfromBononia(Boulogne-sur-Mer)andmarchedonLondiniumwherehebegantodealwiththeinvadersandmadehisbase.[70]AnamnestywaspromisedtodeserterswhichenabledTheodosiustoregarrisonabandonedforts.BytheendoftheyearHadrian'sWallwasretakenandorderreturned.ConsiderablereorganizationwasundertakeninBritain,includingthecreationofanewprovincenamedValentia,probablytobetteraddressthestateofthefarnorth.AnewDuxBritanniarumwasappointed,Dulcitius,withCivilistoheadanewcivilianadministration. Anotherimperialusurper,MagnusMaximus,raisedthestandardofrevoltatSegontium(Caernarfon)innorthWalesin383,andcrossedtheEnglishChannel.Maximusheldmuchofthewesternempire,andfoughtasuccessfulcampaignagainstthePictsandScotsaround384.HiscontinentalexploitsrequiredtroopsfromBritain,anditappearsthatfortsatChesterandelsewherewereabandonedinthisperiod,triggeringraidsandsettlementinnorthWalesbytheIrish.Hisrulewasendedin388,butnotalltheBritishtroopsmayhavereturned:theEmpire'smilitaryresourceswerestretchedtothelimitalongtheRhineandDanube. Around396thereweremorebarbarianincursionsintoBritain.Stilicholedapunitiveexpedition. Itseemspeacewasrestoredby399,anditislikelythatnofurthergarrisoningwasordered;by401moretroopswerewithdrawn,toassistinthewaragainstAlaricI. EndofRomanrule[edit] Mainarticle:EndofRomanruleinBritain RomanBritainin410 Thetraditionalviewofhistorians,informedbytheworkofMichaelRostovtzeff,wasofawidespreadeconomicdeclineatthebeginningofthe5thcentury.Consistentarchaeologicalevidencehastoldanotherstory,andtheacceptedviewisundergoingre-evaluation.Somefeaturesareagreed:moreopulentbutfewerurbanhouses,anendtonewpublicbuildingandsomeabandonmentofexistingones,withtheexceptionofdefensivestructures,andthewidespreadformationof"darkearth"depositsindicatingincreasedhorticulturewithinurbanprecincts.[71]TurningoverthebasilicaatSilchestertoindustrialusesinthelate3rdcentury,doubtlessofficiallycondoned,marksanearlystageinthede-urbanisationofRomanBritain.[72]Theabandonmentofsomesitesisnowbelievedtobelaterthanhadformerlybeenthought.Manybuildingschangedusebutwerenotdestroyed.Thereweregrowingbarbarianattacks,butthesewerefocusedonvulnerableruralsettlementsratherthantowns.SomevillassuchasChedworth,GreatCastertoninRutlandandHucclecoteinGloucestershirehadnewmosaicfloorslaidaroundthistime,suggestingthateconomicproblemsmayhavebeenlimitedandpatchy.Manysufferedsomedecaybeforebeingabandonedinthe5thcentury;thestoryofSaintPatrickindicatesthatvillaswerestilloccupieduntilatleast430.Exceptionally,newbuildingswerestillgoingupinthisperiodinVerulamiumandCirencester.Someurbancentres,forexampleCanterbury,Cirencester,Wroxeter,WinchesterandGloucester,remainedactiveduringthe5thand6thcenturies,surroundedbylargefarmingestates. Urbanlifehadgenerallygrownlessintensebythefourthquarterofthe4thcentury,andcoinsmintedbetween378and388areveryrare,indicatingalikelycombinationofeconomicdecline,diminishingnumbersoftroops,problemswiththepaymentofsoldiersandofficialsorwithunstableconditionsduringtheusurpationofMagnusMaximus383–87.Coinagecirculationincreasedduringthe390s,butneverattainedthelevelsofearlierdecades.Coppercoinsareveryrareafter402,thoughmintedsilverandgoldcoinsfromhoardsindicatetheywerestillpresentintheprovinceeveniftheywerenotbeingspent.By407therewereveryfewnewRomancoinsgoingintocirculation,andby430itislikelythatcoinageasamediumofexchangehadbeenabandoned.Mass-producedwheelthrownpotteryendedatapproximatelythesametime;therichcontinuedtousemetalandglassvessels,whilethepoormadedowithhumble"greyware"orresortedtoleatherorwoodencontainers. Sub-RomanBritain[edit] Mainarticle:Sub-RomanBritain Towardstheendofthe4thcenturyRomanruleinBritaincameunderincreasingpressurefrombarbarianattacks.Apparently,therewerenotenoughtroopstomountaneffectivedefence.Afterelevatingtwodisappointingusurpers,thearmychoseasoldier,ConstantineIII,tobecomeemperorin407.HecrossedtoGaulbutwasdefeatedbyHonorius;itisunclearhowmanytroopsremainedoreverreturned,orwhetheracommander-in-chiefinBritainwaseverreappointed.ASaxonincursionin408wasapparentlyrepelledbytheBritons,andin409ZosimusrecordsthatthenativesexpelledtheRomancivilianadministration.ZosimusmaybereferringtotheBacaudicrebellionoftheBretoninhabitantsofArmoricasincehedescribeshow,intheaftermathoftherevolt,allofArmoricaandtherestofGaulfollowedtheexampleoftheBrettaniai.AletterfromEmperorHonoriusin410hastraditionallybeenseenasrejectingaBritishappealforhelp,butitmayhavebeenaddressedtoBruttiumorBologna.[73]Withtheimperiallayersofthemilitaryandcivilgovernmentgone,administrationandjusticefelltomunicipalauthorities,andlocalwarlordsgraduallyemergedalloverBritain,stillutilizingRomano-Britishidealsandconventions.HistorianStuartLaycockhasinvestigatedthisprocessandemphasisedelementsofcontinuityfromtheBritishtribesinthepre-RomanandRomanperiods,throughtothenativepost-Romankingdoms.[74] InBritishtradition,paganSaxonswereinvitedbyVortigerntoassistinfightingthePictsandIrish. (GermanicmigrationintoRomanBritanniamayhavebegunmuchearlier.Thereisrecordedevidence,forexample,ofGermanicauxiliariessupportingthelegionsinBritaininthe1stand2ndcenturies.) Thenewarrivalsrebelled,plungingthecountryintoaseriesofwarsthateventuallyledtotheSaxonoccupationofLowlandBritainby600.Aroundthistime,manyBritonsfledtoBrittany(henceitsname),GaliciaandprobablyIreland.Asignificantdateinsub-RomanBritainistheGroansoftheBritons,anunansweredappealtoAetius,leadinggeneralofthewesternEmpire,forassistanceagainstSaxoninvasionin446.AnotheristheBattleofDeorhamin577,afterwhichthesignificantcitiesofBath,CirencesterandGloucesterfellandtheSaxonsreachedthewesternsea. HistoriansgenerallyrejectthehistoricityofKingArthur,whoissupposedtohaveresistedtheAnglo-Saxonconquestaccordingtolatermedievallegends.[75] Trade[edit] Seealso:TradebetweenIronAgeBritainandtheRomanworld DuringtheRomanperiodBritain'scontinentaltradewasprincipallydirectedacrosstheSouthernNorthSeaandEasternChannel,focusingonthenarrowStraitofDover,withmorelimitedlinksviatheAtlanticseaways.[76][77][78]ThemostimportantBritishportswereLondonandRichborough,whilstthecontinentalportsmostheavilyengagedintradewithBritainwereBoulogneandthesitesofDomburgandColijnsplaatatthemouthoftheriverScheldt.[76][77]DuringtheLateRomanperioditislikelythattheshorefortsplayedsomeroleincontinentaltradealongsidetheirdefensivefunctions.[76][79] ExportstoBritainincluded:coin;pottery,particularlyred-glossterrasigillata(samianware)fromsouthern,centralandeasternGaul,aswellasvariousotherwaresfromGaulandtheRhineprovinces;oliveoilfromsouthernSpaininamphorae;winefromGaulinamphoraeandbarrels;saltedfishproductsfromthewesternMediterraneanandBrittanyinbarrelsandamphorae;preservedolivesfromsouthernSpaininamphorae;lavaquern-stonesfromMayenonthemiddleRhine;glass;andsomeagriculturalproducts.[76][77][80][81][82][83][84][85][86]Britain'sexportsarehardertodetectarchaeologically,butwillhaveincludedmetals,suchassilverandgoldandsomelead,ironandcopper.Otherexportsprobablyincludedagriculturalproducts,oystersandsalt,whilstlargequantitiesofcoinwouldhavebeenre-exportedbacktothecontinentaswell.[76][84][85][87] TheseproductsmovedasaresultofprivatetradeandalsothroughpaymentsandcontractsestablishedbytheRomanstatetosupportitsmilitaryforcesandofficialsontheisland,aswellasthroughstatetaxationandextractionofresources.[76][87]Upuntilthemid-3rdcentury,theRomanstate'spaymentsappeartohavebeenunbalanced,withfarmoreproductssenttoBritain,tosupportitslargemilitaryforce(whichhadreachedc.53,000bythemid-2ndcentury),thanwereextractedfromtheisland.[76][87] IthasbeenarguedthatRomanBritain'scontinentaltradepeakedinthelate1stcenturyADandthereafterdeclinedasaresultofanincreasingrelianceonlocalproductsbythepopulationofBritain,causedbyeconomicdevelopmentontheislandandbytheRomanstate'sdesiretosavemoneybyshiftingawayfromexpensivelong-distanceimports.[84][86][87][88]EvidencehasbeenoutlinedthatsuggeststhattheprincipaldeclineinRomanBritain'scontinentaltrademayhaveoccurredinthelate2ndcenturyAD,fromc.165ADonwards.[76]ThishasbeenlinkedtotheeconomicimpactofcontemporaryEmpire-widecrises:theAntoninePlagueandtheMarcomannicWars.[76] Fromthemid-3rdcenturyonwards,BritainnolongerreceivedsuchawiderangeandextensivequantityofforeignimportsasitdidduringtheearlierpartoftheRomanperiod;vastquantitiesofcoinfromcontinentalmintsreachedtheisland,whilstthereishistoricalevidencefortheexportoflargeamountsofBritishgraintothecontinentduringthemid-4thcentury.[76][85][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97]DuringthelatterpartoftheRomanperiodBritishagriculturalproducts,paidforbyboththeRomanstateandbyprivateconsumers,clearlyplayedanimportantroleinsupportingthemilitarygarrisonsandurbancentresofthenorthwesterncontinentalEmpire.[76][85][91]ThiscameaboutasaresultoftherapiddeclineinthesizeoftheBritishgarrisonfromthemid-3rdcenturyonwards(thusfreeingupmoregoodsforexport),andbecauseof'Germanic'incursionsacrosstheRhine,whichappeartohavereducedruralsettlementandagriculturaloutputinnorthernGaul.[76][91] Economy[edit] Seealso:RomaneconomyandMininginRomanBritain IndustrialproductioninRomanBritain DevelopmentofDolaucothiGoldMines MineralextractionsitessuchastheDolaucothigoldminewereprobablyfirstworkedbytheRomanarmyfromc.75,andatsomelaterstagepassedtocivilianoperators.Theminedevelopedasaseriesofopencastworkings,mainlybytheuseofhydraulicminingmethods.TheyaredescribedbyPlinytheElderinhisNaturalHistoryingreatdetail.Essentially,watersuppliedbyaqueductswasusedtoprospectfororeveinsbystrippingawaysoiltorevealthebedrock.Ifveinswerepresent,theywereattackedusingfire-settingandtheoreremovedforcomminution.Thedustwaswashedinasmallstreamofwaterandtheheavygolddustandgoldnuggetscollectedinriffles.ThediagramatrightshowshowDolaucothidevelopedfromc.75throughtothe1stcentury.Whenopencastworkwasnolongerfeasible,tunnelsweredriventofollowtheveins.Theevidencefromthesiteshowsadvancedtechnologyprobablyunderthecontrolofarmyengineers. TheWealdenironworkingzone,theleadandsilverminesoftheMendipHillsandthetinminesofCornwallseemtohavebeenprivateenterprisesleasedfromthegovernmentforafee.MininghadlongbeenpractisedinBritain(seeGrimesGraves),buttheRomansintroducednewtechnicalknowledgeandlarge-scaleindustrialproductiontorevolutionisetheindustry.Itincludedhydraulicminingtoprospectfororebyremovingoverburdenaswellasworkalluvialdeposits.Thewaterneededforsuchlarge-scaleoperationswassuppliedbyoneormoreaqueducts,thosesurvivingatDolaucothibeingespeciallyimpressive.Manyprospectingareaswereindangerous,uplandcountry,and,althoughmineralexploitationwaspresumablyoneofthemainreasonsfortheRomaninvasion,ithadtowaituntiltheseareasweresubdued. Romandesignsweremostpopular,butruralcraftsmenstillproduceditemsderivedfromtheIronAgeLaTèneartistictraditions.LocalpotteryrarelyattainedthestandardsoftheGaulishindustries;theCastorwareoftheNeneValleywasabletowithstandcomparisonwiththeimports.Mostnativepotterywasunsophisticatedandintendedonlyforlocalmarkets. Bythe3rdcentury,Britain'seconomywasdiverseandwellestablished,withcommerceextendingintothenon-Romanisednorth.ThedesignofHadrian'sWallespeciallycateredtotheneedforcustomsinspectionsofmerchants'goods. Government[edit] Furtherinformation:GovernorsofRomanBritain,RomanclientkingdomsinBritain,andRomanauxiliariesinBritain UndertheRomanEmpire,administrationofpeacefulprovinceswasultimatelytheremitoftheSenate,butthose,likeBritain,thatrequiredpermanentgarrisons,wereplacedundertheEmperor'scontrol.InpracticeimperialprovinceswererunbyresidentgovernorswhoweremembersoftheSenateandhadheldtheconsulship.Thesemenwerecarefullyselected,oftenhavingstrongrecordsofmilitarysuccessandadministrativeability.InBritain,agovernor'srolewasprimarilymilitary,butnumerousothertaskswerealsohisresponsibility,suchasmaintainingdiplomaticrelationswithlocalclientkings,buildingroads,ensuringthepubliccouriersystemfunctioned,supervisingthecivitatesandactingasajudgeinimportantlegalcases.Whennotcampaigning,hewouldtraveltheprovincehearingcomplaintsandrecruitingnewtroops. Toassisthiminlegalmattershehadanadviser,thelegatusjuridicus,andthoseinBritainappeartohavebeendistinguishedlawyersperhapsbecauseofthechallengeofincorporatingtribesintotheimperialsystemanddevisingaworkablemethodoftaxingthem.Financialadministrationwasdealtwithbyaprocuratorwithjuniorpostsforeachtax-raisingpower.EachlegioninBritainhadacommanderwhoansweredtothegovernorand,intimeofwar,probablydirectlyruledtroublesomedistricts.Eachofthesecommandscarriedatourofdutyoftwotothreeyearsindifferentprovinces.Belowthesepostswasanetworkofadministrativemanagerscoveringintelligencegathering,sendingreportstoRome,organisingmilitarysuppliesanddealingwithprisoners.Astaffofsecondedsoldiersprovidedclericalservices. ColchesterwasprobablytheearliestcapitalofRomanBritain,butitwassooneclipsedbyLondonwithitsstrongmercantileconnections.ThedifferentformsofmunicipalorganisationinBritanniawereknownascivitas(whichweresubdivided,amongstotherforms,intocoloniessuchasYork,Colchester,GloucesterandLincolnandmunicipalitiessuchasVerulamium),andwereeachgovernedbyasenateoflocallandowners,whetherBrythonicorRoman,whoelectedmagistratesconcerningjudicialandcivicaffairs.[98]ThevariouscivitatessentrepresentativestoayearlyprovincialcouncilinordertoprofessloyaltytotheRomanstate,tosenddirectpetitionstotheEmperorintimesofextraordinaryneed,andtoworshiptheimperialcult.[98] Demographics[edit] RomanBritainhadanestimatedpopulationbetween2.8millionand3millionpeopleattheendofthesecondcentury.Attheendofthefourthcentury,ithadanestimatedpopulationof3.6millionpeople,ofwhom125,000consistedoftheRomanarmyandtheirfamiliesanddependents.[99] TheurbanpopulationofRomanBritainwasabout240,000peopleattheendofthefourthcentury.[99]ThecapitalcityofLondiniumisestimatedtohavehadapopulationofabout60,000people.[100][101]LondiniumwasanethnicallydiversecitywithinhabitantsfromacrosstheRomanEmpire,includingnativesofBritannia,continentalEurope,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfrica.[102]TherewasalsoculturaldiversityinotherRoman-Britishtowns,whichweresustainedbyconsiderablemigration,bothwithinBritanniaandfromotherRomanterritories,includingcontinentalEurope,RomanSyria,theEasternMediterranean[103]andNorthAfrica.[104] Townandcountry[edit] Furtherinformation:RomansitesinGreatBritain,RomancitiesinBritain,andListofRomanplacenamesinBritain BritanniaasshownontheTabulaPeutingeriana(copyfrom1897) DuringtheiroccupationofBritaintheRomansfoundedanumberofimportantsettlements,manyofwhichstillsurvive.Thetownssufferedattritioninthelater4thcentury,whenpublicbuildingceasedandsomewereabandonedtoprivateuses.PlacenamessurvivedthedeurbanisedSub-RomanandearlyAnglo-Saxonperiods,andhistoriographyhasbeenatpainstosignaltheexpectedsurvivals,butarchaeologyshowsthatabarehandfulofRomantownswerecontinuouslyoccupied.AccordingtoS.T.Loseby,[105]theveryideaofatownasacentreofpowerandadministrationwasreintroducedtoEnglandbytheRomanChristianisingmissiontoCanterbury,anditsurbanrevivalwasdelayedtothe10thcentury. Romanpublicbaths(thermae)inBath(AquaeSulis). Romantownscanbebroadlygroupedintwocategories.Civitates,"publictowns"wereformallylaidoutonagridplan,andtheirroleinimperialadministrationoccasionedtheconstructionofpublicbuildings.[106]Themuchmorenumerouscategoryofvici,"smalltowns"grewoninformalplans,oftenroundacamporatafordorcrossroads;somewerenotsmall,otherswerescarcelyurban,somenotevendefendedbyawall,thecharacteristicfeatureofaplaceofanyimportance.[107] CitiesandtownswhichhaveRomanorigins,orwereextensivelydevelopedbythemarelistedwiththeirLatinnamesinbrackets;civitatesaremarkedC Alcester(Alauna) Alchester Aldborough,NorthYorkshire(IsuriumBrigantum)C Bath(AquaeSulis)C Brough(Petuaria)C Buxton(AquaeArnemetiae) Caerleon(IscaAugusta)C Caernarfon(Segontium)C Caerwent(VentaSilurum)C Caister-on-SeaC Canterbury(DurovernumCantiacorum)C Carlisle(Luguvalium)C Carmarthen(Moridunum)C Chelmsford(Caesaromagus) Chester(DevaVictrix)C Chester-le-Street(Concangis) Chichester(NoviomagusReginorum)[108]C Cirencester(Corinium)C Colchester(Camulodunum)C Corbridge(Coria)C Dorchester(Durnovaria)C Dover(PortusDubris) Exeter(IscaDumnoniorum)C Gloucester(Glevum)C GreatChesterford(thenameofthisvicusisunknown) Ilchester(Lindinis)C Leicester(RataeCorieltauvorum)C Lincoln(LindumColonia)C London(Londinium)C Manchester(Mamucium)C NewcastleuponTyne(PonsAelius) Northwich(Condate) StAlbans(Verulamium)C Silchester(CallevaAtrebatum)C Towcester(Lactodurum) Whitchurch(Mediolanum)C Winchester(VentaBelgarum)C Wroxeter(ViroconiumCornoviorum)C York(Eboracum)C Religion[edit] Furtherinformation:Romano-Celtictemple Pagan[edit] Mainarticles:AncientCelticreligionandReligioninancientRome Artist'sreconstructionofPagansHillRomanTemple,Somerset Thedruids,theCelticpriestlycastewhowerebelievedtooriginateinBritain,[109]wereoutlawedbyClaudius,[110]andin61theyvainlydefendedtheirsacredgrovesfromdestructionbytheRomansontheislandofMona(Anglesey).[111]UnderRomanruletheBritonscontinuedtoworshipnativeCelticdeities,suchasAncasta,butoftenconflatedwiththeirRomanequivalents,likeMarsRigonemetosatNettleham. Thedegreetowhichearliernativebeliefssurvivedisdifficulttogaugeprecisely.CertainEuropeanritualtraitssuchasthesignificanceofthenumber3,theimportanceoftheheadandofwatersourcessuchasspringsremaininthearchaeologicalrecord,butthedifferencesinthevotiveofferingsmadeatthebathsatBath,Somerset,beforeandaftertheRomanconquestsuggestthatcontinuitywasonlypartial.WorshipoftheRomanemperoriswidelyrecorded,especiallyatmilitarysites.ThefoundingofaRomantempletoClaudiusatCamulodunumwasoneoftheimpositionsthatledtotherevoltofBoudica.Bythe3rdcentury,PagansHillRomanTempleinSomersetwasabletoexistpeaceablyanditdidsointothe5thcentury. Paganreligiouspracticesweresupportedbypriests,representedinBritainbyvotivedepositsofpriestlyregaliasuchaschaincrownsfromWestStowandWillinghamFen.[112] EasterncultssuchasMithraismalsogrewinpopularitytowardstheendoftheoccupation.TheLondonMithraeumisoneexampleofthepopularityofmysteryreligionsamongthesoldiery.TemplestoMithrasalsoexistinmilitarycontextsatVindobalaonHadrian'sWall(theRudchesterMithraeum)andatSegontiuminRomanWales(theCaernarfonMithraeum). Christianity[edit] Mainarticle:ChristianityinRomanBritain Fourth-centuryChi-RhofrescofromLullingstoneRomanVilla,Kent,whichcontainstheonlyknownChristianpaintingsfromtheRomanerainBritain.[113] ItisnotclearwhenorhowChristianitycametoBritain.A2nd-century"wordsquare"hasbeendiscoveredinMamucium,theRomansettlementofManchester.[114]ItconsistsofananagramofPATERNOSTERcarvedonapieceofamphora.Therehasbeendiscussionbyacademicswhetherthe"wordsquare"isaChristianartefact,butifitis,itisoneoftheearliestexamplesofearlyChristianityinBritain.[115]TheearliestconfirmedwrittenevidenceforChristianityinBritainisastatementbyTertullian,c.200AD,inwhichhedescribed"allthelimitsoftheSpains,andthediversenationsoftheGauls,andthehauntsoftheBritons,inaccessibletotheRomans,butsubjugatedtoChrist".[116]ArchaeologicalevidenceforChristiancommunitiesbeginstoappearinthe3rdand4thcenturies.SmalltimberchurchesaresuggestedatLincolnandSilchesterandbaptismalfontshavebeenfoundatIcklinghamandtheSaxonShoreFortatRichborough.TheIcklinghamfontismadeoflead,andvisibleintheBritishMuseum.ARomanChristiangraveyardexistsatthesamesiteinIcklingham.ApossibleRoman4th-centurychurchandassociatedburialgroundwasalsodiscoveredatButtRoadonthesouth-westoutskirtsofColchesterduringtheconstructionofthenewpolicestationthere,overlyinganearlierpagancemetery.TheWaterNewtonTreasureisahoardofChristiansilverchurchplatefromtheearly4thcenturyandtheRomanvillasatLullingstoneandHintonStMarycontainedChristianwallpaintingsandmosaicsrespectively.Alarge4th-centurycemeteryatPoundburywithitseast–westorientedburialsandlackofgravegoodshasbeeninterpretedasanearlyChristianburialground,althoughsuchburialriteswerealsobecomingincreasinglycommoninpagancontextsduringtheperiod. TheChurchinBritainseemstohavedevelopedthecustomarydiocesansystem,asevidencedfromtherecordsoftheCouncilofArlesinGaulin314:representedatthecouncilwerebishopsfromthirty-fiveseesfromEuropeandNorthAfrica,includingthreebishopsfromBritain,EboriusofYork,RestitutusofLondon,andAdelphius,possiblyabishopofLincoln.Nootherearlyseesaredocumented,andthematerialremainsofearlychurchstructuresarefartoseek.[117]TheexistenceofachurchintheforumcourtyardofLincolnandthemartyriumofSaintAlbanontheoutskirtsofRomanVerulamiumareexceptional.[105]Alban,thefirstBritishChristianmartyrandbyfarthemostprominent,isbelievedtohavediedintheearly4thcentury(somedatehiminthemiddle3rdcentury),followedbySaintsJuliusandAaronofIscaAugusta.ChristianitywaslegalisedintheRomanEmpirebyConstantineIin313.TheodosiusImadeChristianitythestatereligionoftheempirein391,andbythe5thcenturyitwaswellestablished.Onebelieflabelledaheresybythechurchauthorities —Pelagianism —wasoriginatedbyaBritishmonkteachinginRome:Pelagiuslivedc.354toc.420/440. AletterfoundonaleadtabletinBath,Somerset,databletoc.363,hadbeenwidelypublicisedasdocumentaryevidenceregardingthestateofChristianityinBritainduringRomantimes.Accordingtoitsfirsttranslator,itwaswritteninWroxeterbyaChristianmancalledVinisiustoaChristianwomancalledNigra,andwasclaimedasthefirstepigraphicrecordofChristianityinBritain.Thistranslationoftheletterwasapparentlybasedongravepaleographicalerrors,andthetexthasnothingtodowithChristianity,andinfactrelatestopaganrituals.[118] Environmentalchanges[edit] TheRomansintroducedanumberofspeciestoBritain,includingpossiblythenow-rareRomannettle(Urticapilulifera),[119]saidtohavebeenusedbysoldierstowarmtheirarmsandlegs,[120]andtheediblesnailHelixpomatia.[121]Thereisalsosomeevidencetheymayhaveintroducedrabbits,butofthesmallersouthernmediterraneantype.TheEuropeanrabbit(Oryctolaguscuniculus)prevalentinmodernBritainisassumedtohavebeenintroducedfromthecontinentaftertheNormaninvasionof1066.[122]Box(Buxussempervirens)israrelyrecordedbeforetheRomanperiod,butbecomesacommonfindintownsandvillas.[123] Legacy[edit] Romanroadsaround150AD. DuringtheiroccupationofBritaintheRomansbuiltanextensivenetworkofroadswhichcontinuedtobeusedinlatercenturiesandmanyarestillfollowedtoday.TheRomansalsobuiltwatersupply,sanitationandwastewatersystems.ManyofBritain'smajorcities,suchasLondon(Londinium),Manchester(Mamucium)andYork(Eboracum),werefoundedbytheRomans,buttheoriginalRomansettlementswereabandonednotlongaftertheRomansleft. UnlikemanyotherareasoftheWesternRomanEmpire,thecurrentmajoritylanguageisnotaRomancelanguage,oralanguagedescendedfromthepre-Romaninhabitants.TheBritishlanguageatthetimeoftheinvasionwasCommonBrittonic,andremainedsoaftertheRomanswithdrew.Itlatersplitintoregionallanguages,notablyCumbric,Cornish,BretonandWelsh.Examinationoftheselanguagessuggestssome800LatinwordswereincorporatedintoCommonBrittonic(seeBrittoniclanguages).Thecurrentmajoritylanguage,English,isbasedonthelanguagesoftheGermanictribeswhomigratedtotheislandfromcontinentalEuropefromthe5thcenturyonwards. Seealso[edit] AncientRomeportal UnitedKingdomportal Britannia(disambiguation) Romano-Britishculture HistoryoftheBritishIsles PrehistoricBritain ScotlandduringtheRomanEmpire DolaucothiGoldMines References[edit] ^abSimonHornblower;AntonySpawforth,eds.(1998).TheOxfordCompaniontoClassicalCivilization.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-860165-4. ^AlanParker;VeronicaPalmer(1992).TheChronologyofBritishHistory.CenturyLtd.pp. 20–22.ISBN 0-7126-5616-2. ^JuliusCaesar,CommentariideBelloGallico[CommentariesontheGallicWar](inLatin),IV20–38 ,abridgedbyCassiusDio,HistoriaRomana(inLatin),39.51–53;cf.Tacitus,Agricola(inLatin),13. ^JuliusCaesar,CommentariidebelloGallico(inLatin),V1–23 ,abridgedbyCassiusDio,HistoriaRomana(inLatin),40.1–4. ^"C.JuliusCaesar,DebelloGallico,COMMENTARIUSQUINTUS,chapter12,section1".ThePerseusProject.Retrieved24February2018. ^Bowman,AlanK.;Champlin,Edward;Lintott,Andrew(1996).CambridgeAncientHistory.Vol. 10.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 228.ISBN 9780521264303. ^Suetonius,Claudius,17;cf.CassiusDio,HistoriaRomana(inLatin),40.19,1. ^Nicholas,Crane(2016).TheMakingOfTheBritishLandscape:FromtheIceAgetothePresent.ISBN 9780297857358. ^Mattingly,David(2007).AnImperialPossession:BritainintheRomanEmpire,54BC–AD409.PenguinUK.ISBN 9780141903859. ^Herodian,ΤῆςμετὰΜάρκονβασιλείαςἱστορία[HistoryoftheEmpirefromtheDeathofMarcus](inAncientGreek),III,8,2.Theprecisedatingisuncertain;theprovincedoesnotappeartohavebeendivideduntilthereignofCaracalla. ^ThereorganisationisusuallyattributedtoConstantinetheGreat;itfirstappearsintheVeronaList,ofc. 314. ^"AnOverviewofRomanBritain".BBC.Retrieved26August2017. ^GeorgePatrickWelsh(1963).Britannia:theRomanConquestandOccupationofBritain.pp. 27–31. ^Herodotus,Histories,3.115 ^Plutarch,LifeofCaesar,23.2 ^JuliusCaesar,CommentariideBelloGallico(inLatin),IV20–36  ^JuliusCaesar,CommentariideBelloGallico(inLatin),V8–23  ^CassiusDio,HistoriaRomana[RomanHistory](inLatin),49.38,53.22,53.25 ^Strabo,Geographica,4.5 ^KeithBranigan(1985).PeoplesofRomanBritain:TheCatuvellauni.SuttonPublishing.ISBN 978-0-86299-255-2. ^Augustus,ResGestaeDiviAugusti[TheDeedsoftheDivineAugustus](inLatin),32 ^Tacitus,Annals,2.24  ^JohnCreighton(2000).CoinsandpowerinLateIronAgeBritain.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-1-139-43172-9. ^Suetonius,Caligula,44–46 ^CassiusDio,HistoriaRomana(inLatin),59.25 ^CassiusDio,HistoriaRomana(inLatin),60.19–22 ^Tacitus,Histories,3.44  ^Tacitus,Annals,14.32  ^Tacitus,Annals,14.34  ^GrahamWebster(1998).TheRomanImperialArmyofthefirstandsecondcenturiesAD(Newedof3rdrevised ed.).UniversityofOklahomaPress.p. 66.ISBN 978-0-8061-3000-2. ^JohnManley(2002).AD43:TheRomanInvasionofBritain:aReassessment.TheHistoryPress.ISBN 978-0-7524-1959-6. ^Suetonius,Vespasian,4 ^Tacitus,Agricola,14 ^Tacitus,Annals,12:31–38 ^Tacitus,Agricola,14.17 ^Tacitus,Annals,14.29–39 ^CassiusDio,HistoriaRomana(inLatin),62.1–12 ^Suetonius,Nero,18 ^Tacitus,Agricola(inLatin),16–17 ^Tacitus,Histories,1.60,3.45 ^Tacitus,Agricola(inLatin),18.38 ^Anonymous,PanegyriciLatini,VIII.10 ^AureliusVictor.LiberdeCaesaribus[BookofCaesars](inLatin).39. ^Eutropius.BreviariumhistoriaeRomanae[AbridgementofRomanHistory](inLatin).21–22. ^Orosius,HistoriaeAdversusPaganos[SevenBooksofHistoryAgainstthePagans](inLatin),7.25 ^Collins,Rob.Hadrian'sWallandtheEndofEmpire,Routledge,2012ISBN9780415884112 ^TheVeronaListactuallyincludesanotethattheDioceseoftheBritainshadsixprovinces,butthenlistsfour.SextusRufuslistedsixprovinces,includingthehighlydubious"provinceofOrcades"(OrkneyIslands).Somescholars[who?]arguethattheinitialreformsestablishedthreeprovinces:Britannia I,Britannia II,andBritanniaCaesariensis,whichwassubsequentlydividedintoFlaviaandMaxima. ^AmmianusMarcellinus.RerumgestarumLibriXXXI[31BooksofDeeds].a. 391 AD.(inLatin)TranslatedbyCharlesYonge.RomanHistory,Vol. XXVIII,Ch. III.Bohn(London),1862.HostedatWikisource. ^"AROS:VESPASIANA:APROVINCEOFROMANBRITANNIA?".9December2019. ^Labbé,Philippe&GabrielCossart(eds.)SacrosanctaConciliaadRegiamEditionemExacta:quaeNuncQuartaParteProditActior[TheSancrosanctCouncilsExactedfortheRoyalEdition:whichtheEditorsNowProduceinFourParts],Vol. I:"AbInitiisÆræChristianæadAnnumCCCXXIV"["FromtheBeginningoftheChristianEratotheYear324"],col. 1429.TheTypographicalSocietyforEcclesiasticalBooks(Paris),1671. ^abThackery,Francis.ResearchesintotheEcclesiasticalandPoliticalStateofAncientBritainundertheRomanEmperors:withObservationsuponthePrincipalEventsandCharactersConnectedwiththeChristianReligion,duringtheFirstFiveCenturies,pp. 272 ff.T. Cadell(London),1843. ^"NominaEpiscoporum,cumClericisSuis,Quinam,etexQuibusProvinciis,adArelatensemSynodumConvenerint"["TheNamesoftheBishopswithTheirClericswhoCameTogetherattheSynodofArlesandfromwhichProvinceTheyCame"]fromtheConsilia[50]inThackery[51](inLatin) ^Usserius,Jacobus[JamesUssher].BritannicarumEcclesiarumAntiquitates,QuibusInsertaEstPestiferæadversusDeiGratiamaPelagioBritannoinEcclesiamInductæHæreseosHistoria[AntiquitiesoftheBritannicChurches,intoWhichIsInsertedaHistoryofthePestilentHereticsIntroducedagainsttheGraceofGodbyPelagiustheBritonintotheChurch],Vol. I.,Ch. VIII,(Dublin),1639.ReprintedasTheWholeWorksoftheMostRev. JamesUssher,D. D.LordArchbishopofArmagh,andPrimateofAllIreland,Vol. V,Ch. VIII,p. 236.Hodges,Smith,& Co.(Dublin),1864.(inLatin) ^EutychiusÆgyptius[EutychiustheEgyptian].Edited,translated,&withcommentarybyIoannesSeldenus[JohnSelden].EcclesiæsuæOrigines[OriginsofHisChurch],p. 118.R. &T. WhitakerforRichardBishop(London),1642.(inLatin) ^HenricusSpelman[HenrySpelman]Concilia,Decreta,Leges,Constitutiones,inReEcclesiarumOrbisBritannici.Viz.Pambritannica,Pananglica,Scotica,Hibernica,Cambrica,Mannica,Provincialia,Dioecesana.AbinitioChristianæibidemReligionis,adnostramusqueætatem[Councils,Decrees,Laws,Constitutions,RegardingtheChurchesoftheBritannicSphere.Towit,GreatBritain,England,Scotland,Ireland,Wales,Man,Provincial,Diocesan.FromthestartoftheChristianReligiontheretoourveryage],Vol. I,Index,p. 639.RichardBadger(London),1639.(inLatin) ^Usserius,Vol. I,Ch.V,reprintedasUssher,Vol. V,p. 82.(inLatin) ^AlthoughUssherrefersthereadertohisearlierdiscussionofthe28CitiesofBritain,whichnotesthat"CairColun"mayrefertoeitherColchesterinEssexortoasettlementinMerionethshire.[56] ^Gale,Thomæ[ThomasGale].AntoniniIterBritanniarum[Antoninus'sRouteoftheBritains],"IterV.ALondinioLugvvalliumAdVallum"[Route5:FromLondiniumtoLuguvaliumattheWall],p. 96.Publishedposthumously&editedbyR. Gale.M. Atkins(London),1709.(inLatin) ^Bingham,Joseph.OriginesEcclesiasticæ:TheAntiquitiesoftheChristianChurch.WithTwoSermonsandTwoLettersontheNatureandNecessityofAbsolution.ReprintedfromtheOriginalEdition,MDCCVIII.–MDCCXXII.WithanEnlargedAnalyticalIndex.Vol. I,Book IX,Ch. VI,§20:"OftheBritishchurchinEnglandandWales",p. 396.HenryG.Bohn(London),1856. ^Henry,Robert.TheHistoryofGreatBritain,fromtheFirstInvasionofItbytheRomansunderJuliusCæsar.WrittenonaNewPlan,2nd ed.,Vol. I,Ch. 2,s2,p. 143.1st ed.publishedbyT. Cadell(London),1771.ReprintedbyP. Byrne&J. Jones(Dublin),1789. ^Stillingfleet,Edward.OriginesBritannicæ:or,theAntiquitiesoftheBritishChurcheswithaPreface,concerningSomePretendedAntiquitiesRelatingtoBritain,inVindicationoftheBishopofSt. Asaph,NewEd.,pp. 77 ff.Wm. Straker(London),1840. ^GiraldusCambriensis[GeraldofWales].DeInuectionibus[OnInvectives],Vol. II,Ch. I,inYCymmrodor:TheMagazineoftheHonourableSocietyofCymmrodorion,Vol. XXX,pp. 130–1.GeorgeSimpson& Co.(Devizes),1920.(inLatin) ^GeraldofWales.TranslatedbyW.S.DaviesasTheBookofInvectivesofGiraldusCambrensisinYCymmrodor:TheMagazineoftheHonourableSocietyofCymmrodorion,Vol. XXX,p. 16.GeorgeSimpson& Co.(Devizes),1920. ^BedaVenerabilis[TheVenerableBede].HistoriaEcclesiasticaGentisAnglorum[TheEcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglishPeople],Vol. II,Ch. XVI.731.HostedatLatinWikisource.(inLatin) ^Bede.TranslatedbyLionelCecilJaneasTheEcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglishNation,Vol. 2,Ch. 16.J.M. Dent& Co.(London),1903.HostedatWikisource. ^BedealsoreferencesaProvinciaLindisiorprouinciaeLindissi,whichwasalaterSaxonterritoryatthetimeoftheGregorianmission.[64][65] ^Barnes,ConstantineandEusebius,27,298;Elliott,ChristianityofConstantine,39;Odahl,77–78,309;Pohlsander,EmperorConstantine,15–16. ^Mattingly,233–34;Southern,170,341. ^Hughes,Ian(2013).ImperialBrothers:Valentinian,ValensandtheDisasteratAdrianople.Pen&SwordMilitary.ISBN978-1848844179.p.59. ^AmmianusMarcellinus,ResGestae27.8.6 ^Archaeologicalevidenceoflate4th-centuryurbancollapseisanalysedbySimonEsmondeCleary(2000).TheEndingofRomanBritain.;the"de-romanisation"ofBritainisthesubjectofseveralaccountsbyRichardReece,including"Townandcountry:theendofRomanBritain",WorldArchaeology12(1980:77–92)and"TheendofthecityinRomanBritain",inJ.Rich(ed.),TheCityinAntiquity(1992:136-44);SimonT.Loseby(2000)."PowerandtownsinLateRomanBritainandearlyAnglo-SaxonEngland".InGiselaRipoll;JosepM.Gurt(eds.).Sedesregiae(ann.400–800)(inLatin).Barcelona.326f.makesastrongcasefordiscontinuityofurbanlife. ^MichaelFulford(1985)."Excavations ...".Antiquaries.65:39–81.,notedinLoseby(2000) ^SamMoorhead;DavidStuttard(2012).TheRomanswhoShapedBritain.London:Thames&Hudson.p. 238.ISBN 978-0-500-25189-8. ^StuartLaycock(2008).Britannia:theFailedState.TheHistoryPress.ISBN 978-0-7524-4614-1. ^Higham,NicholasJ.(2018).KingArthur:TheMakingoftheLegend.NewHaven,Connecticut:YaleUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-300-21092-7. ^abcdefghijklFrancisMorris(2010).NorthSeaandChannelConnectivityduringtheLateIronAgeandRomanPeriod(175/150BC –409 AD).BritishArchaeologicalReportsInternationalSeries.Oxford:Archaeopress. ^abcMichaelFulford(2007),"CoastingBritannia:RomantradeandtrafficaroundtheshoresofBritain",inChrisGosden;HelenaHamerow;PhilipdeJersey;GaryLock(eds.),CommunitiesandConnections:EssaysinHonourofBarryCunliffe,OxfordUniversityPress,pp. 54–74,ISBN 978-0-19-923034-1 ^BarryCunliffe(2002).FacingtheOcean:theAtlanticanditsPeoples8000BC –1500 AD.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-285354-7. ^AndrewPearson(2002).TheRomanShoreForts:CoastalDefencesofSouthernBritain.TheHistoryPress.ISBN 978-0-7524-1949-7. ^PaulTyers(1996).RomanPotteryinBritain.London:Batsford.ISBN 978-0-7134-7412-1. ^PaulTyers(1996)."RomanamphorasinBritain".InternetArchaeology.CouncilforBritishArchaeology.1.doi:10.11141/ia.1.6. ^D.P.S.Peacock;D.F.Williams(1986).AmphoraeintheRomanEconomy.London:Longman.ISBN 978-0-582-06555-0. ^CésarCarrerasMonfortandP.P.A.Funari(1998).BritanniayelMediterráneo:EstudiosSobreelAbastecimientodeAceiteBéticoyafricanoenBritannia[BritainandtheMediterranean:StudiesontheBeticandAfricanoilsupplyinBritannia](inSpanish).Barcelona:PublicacionsUniversitatdeBarcelona.ISBN 978-84-475-1950-7. ^abcMichaelFulford(1991),"BritainandtheRomanEmpire:theevidenceforregionalandlongdistancetrade",inR.F.J.Jones(ed.),RomanBritain:RecentTrends,Sheffield:J.R.CollisPublications,pp. 35–47,ISBN 978-0-906090-39-8 ^abcdMichaelFulford(2004),"EconomicStructures",inMalcolmTodd(ed.),ACompaniontoRomanBritain,Oxford:Blackwell,ISBN 978-0-631-21823-4 ^abDavidMattingly(2006).AnImperialPossession:BritainintheRomanEmpire.Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0. ^abcdMichaelFulford(1984),"DemonstratingBritannia'seconomicdependenceinthefirstandsecondcenturies",inT.F.C.Blagg;AnthonyKing(eds.),MilitaryandCivilianinRomanBritain:CulturalRelationshipsinaFrontierProvince,Oxford:BritishArchaeologicalReports,pp. 129–142,ISBN 9780860542964 ^MichaelFulford(1989),"TheeconomyofRomanBritain",inMalcolmTodd(ed.),ResearchonRomanBritain1960–89,London:SocietyforthePromotionofRomanStudies,pp. 175–201,ISBN 978-0-907764-13-7 ^MichaelFulford(1977),"PotteryandBritain'sforeigntradeintheLaterRomanperiod",inD.P.S.Peacock(ed.),PotteryandEarlyCommerce.CharacterizationandTradeinRomanandLaterCeramics,London:AcademicPress,pp. 35–84,ISBN 978-0-12-547850-2 ^MichaelFulford(1978),"TheinterpretationofBritain'slateRomantrade:thescopeofmedievalhistoricalandarchaeologicalanalogy",inJoanduPlatTaylor;HenryCleere(eds.),RomanShippingandTrade:BritainandtheRhineProvinces,London:CouncilforBritishArchaeology,pp. 59–69,ISBN 978-0-900312-62-5 ^abcMichaelFulford(1996),"Economichotspotsandprovincialbackwaters:modellingthelateRomaneconomy",inCathyE.King;DavidG.Wigg(eds.),CoinFindsandCoinUseintheRomanWorld,StudienzuFundmünzenderAntike,Berlin:MannVerlag,pp. 153–177,ISBN 978-3-7861-1628-8 ^AnthonyR.Birley(2005).TheRomanGovernmentofBritain.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 423–24.ISBN 978-0-19-925237-4. ^Julian,EpistulaadsenatumpopulumqueAtheniorum[LettertothesenateofAthens](inLatin),279D,280A,B,C ^Libanius,Orations,18.82–83,87 ^AmmianusMarcellinus,ResGestae(inLatin),18.2.3–4 ^Eunapius,FragmentaHist.Graecorum[FragmentsofGreekHistory](inLatin),12 ^Zosimus,HistoriaNova[NewHistory](inLatin),3.5.2 ^abMichaelE.Jones(1998).TheEndofRomanBritain.CornellUniversityPress.p. 147.ISBN 978-0-8014-8530-5. ^abJoanP.Alcock,ABriefHistoryofRomanBritain,page260,HachetteUK ^WillDurant(7June2011).CaesarandChrist:TheStoryofCivilization.SimonandSchuster.p. 468.ISBN 978-1-4516-4760-0. ^AnneLancashire(2002).LondonCivicTheatre:CityDramaandPageantryfromRomanTimesto1558.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 19.ISBN 978-0-5216-3278-2. ^DNAstudyfindsLondonwasethnicallydiversefromstart,BBC,23November2015 ^DavidShotter(2012),RomanBritain,page37,Routledge ^RayLaurence(2012),RomanArchaeologyforHistorians,page121,Routledge ^abSimonT.Loseby(2000)."PowerandtownsinLateRomanBritainandearlyAnglo-SaxonEngland".InGiselaRipoll;JosepM.Gurt(eds.).Sedesregiae(ann.400–800)(inLatin).Barcelona.p. 326f. ^MartinMillet(1992)[firstpublishedin1990].TheRomanizationofBritain:anessayinarchaeologicalinterpretation.CambridgeUniversityPress.102f.ISBN 978-0-521-42864-4.,lists22"publictowns";Gildas,DeExcidioetConquestuBritanniae[OntheruinandconquestofBritain](inLatin),3.2lists28;discussionismootedwhetherGildaspossessedawrittenorconventionallist(NickHigham(1991)."OldlightontheDarkAgelandscape:thedescriptionofBritaininthedeExcidioBritanniaeofGildas".JournalofHistoricalGeography(inLatin).17(4):363–72.doi:10.1016/0305-7488(91)90022-N.). ^BarryC.Burnham;J.S.Wacher(1990).The'SmallTowns'ofRomanBritain.Batsford.ISBN 978-0-7134-6175-6. ^NoviomagusReginorum:meaning"newfield"or"newclearing"oftheRegni(JohnWacher(1995).TheTownsofRomanBritain(2ndrevised ed.).Routledge.p. 262.ISBN 978-0-7134-7319-3.) ^JuliusCaesar.CommentariideBelloGallico.6.13 . ^Suetonius,Claudius,25.5 ^Tacitus,Annals,14.30 ^Esposito,Alessandra(2016)."AContextforRomanPriestlyRegalia:DepositionalPracticesandSpatialDistributionofAssemblagesfromRomanBritain".InMandichs,M.J.;Derrick,T.J.;GonzalezSanchez,S.;Savani,G.;Zampieri,E.(eds.).ProceedingsoftheTwenty-FifthAnnualTheoreticalRomanArchaeologyConference.TheoreticalRomanArchaeologyJournal.TheoreticalRomanArchaeologyConference.pp. 92–110.doi:10.16995/TRAC2015_92_110. ^"FromPaganismtoChristianity".LullingstoneRomanVilla,EnglishHeritage.Retrieved15June2012. ^G.H.R.Horsley(1987).NewDocumentsIllustratingEarlyChristianity:aReviewoftheGreekInscriptionsandPapyriPublishedin1979.WilliamB.EerdmansPublishingCompany.p. 138.ISBN 978-0-85837-599-4. ^DavidShotter(2004)[firstpublishedin1993].RomansandBritonsinNorth-WestEngland.Lancaster:CentreforNorth-WestRegionalStudies.pp. 129–130.ISBN 1-86220-152-8. ^Tertullian,DeAdversusJudaeos [AnAnswertotheJews],7.4 ^CharlesThomas(1981).ChristianityinRomanBritainto500 AD.Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-16634-8. ^R.S.O.Tomlin(1994)."VinisiustoNigra:EvidencefromOxfordofChristianityinRomanBritain"(PDF).ZeitschriftfürPapyrologieundEpigraphik.100:93–108.Retrieved13December2006. ^GulselM.Kavalali(2003).Urtica:therapeuticandnutritionalaspectsofstingingnettles.CRCPress.p. 15.ISBN 978-0-415-30833-5. ^HomerNearing,Jr(1949)."LocalCaesarTraditionsinBritain".Speculum.MedievalAcademyofAmerica.24(2):218–227.doi:10.2307/2848562.JSTOR 2848562.S2CID 162955707. ^TimR.New(1995).Introductiontoinvertebrateconservationbiology.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 136.ISBN 978-0-19-854051-9. ^"Unearthingtheancestralrabbit",BritishArchaeology(86),2006 ^Lodwick,LisaA.(2017)."EvergreenPlantsinRomanBritainandBeyond:Movement,MeaningandMateriality".Britannia.48:135–173.doi:10.1017/S0068113X17000101.ISSN 0068-113X. Furtherreading[edit] IronAgebackground[edit] JohnCreighton(2000).CoinsandpowerinLateIronAgeBritain.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-1-139-43172-9. BarryCunliffe(2005).IronAgeCommunitiesinBritain(4th ed.).London:Routledge. GeneralworksonRomanBritain[edit] JoanPAlcock(2011).ABriefHistoryofRomanBritainConquestandCivilization.London:Constable&Robinson.ISBN 978-1-84529-728-2. GuydelaBédoyère(2006).RomanBritain:aNewHistory.London:ThamesandHudson.ISBN 978-0-500-05140-5. SimonEsmonde-Cleary(1989).TheEndingofRomanBritain.London:Batsford.ISBN 978-0-415-23898-4. SheppardFrere(1987).Britannia.AHistoryofRomanBritain(3rd ed.).London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.ISBN 978-0-7126-5027-4. BarriJones;DavidMattingly(2002)[firstpublishedin1990].AnAtlasofRomanBritain(New ed.).Oxford:Oxbow.ISBN 978-1-84217-067-0. StuartLaycock(2008).Britannia:theFailedState.TheHistoryPress.ISBN 978-0-7524-4614-1. DavidMattingly(2006).AnImperialPossession:BritainintheRomanEmpire.London:Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0. MartinMillet(1992)[firstpublishedin1990].TheRomanizationofBritain:anessayinarchaeologicalinterpretation.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-42864-4. PatriciaSouthern(2012).RomanBritain:ANewHistory55BC –450 AD.Stroud:AmberleyPublishing.ISBN 978-1-4456-0146-5. SamMoorhead;DavidStuttard(2012).TheRomanswhoShapedBritain.London:Thames&Hudson.ISBN 978-0-500-25189-8. PeterSalway(1993).AHistoryofRomanBritain.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-280138-8. MalcolmTodd,ed.(2004).ACompaniontoRomanBritain.Oxford:Blackwell.ISBN 978-0-631-21823-4. CharlotteHiggins(2014).UnderAnotherSky.London:Vintage.ISBN 978-0-09-955209-3. Fleming,Robin(2021).TheMaterialFallofRomanBritain,300-525CE.UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.ISBN 978-0-8122-9736-2. Historicalsourcesandinscriptions[edit] V.A.Maxfield;B.Dobson(2006)[firstpublished1969].InscriptionsofRomanBritain.LACTOR4(4th ed.).ISBN 978-0-903625-32-6.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7October2014. AnthonyR.Birley(2005).TheRomanGovernmentofBritain.OxfordUniversityPress. R.G.Collingwood;R.P.Wright;RSOTomlin(1995)[firstpublished1965].Vol.I:InscriptionsonStone.RomanInscriptionsofBritain(Revised ed.).Stroud.ASIN B00F45BDAM.Archivedfromtheoriginalon19June2006.Retrieved7November2007. R.G.Collingwood;R.P.Wright(1990).SheppardFrere;RSOTomlin(eds.).RomanInscriptionsofBritain.Vol.II:InstrumentumDomesticum.Fasc.I.TheMilitarydiplomata;metalingots;tesserae;dies;labels;andleadsealings(inLatin).Stroud. SheppardFrere;R.S.O.Tomlin,eds.(1991–1995).RomanInscriptionsofBritain.Vol.II.Fascs.2–8.Stroud. StanleyIreland(2008)[firstpublished1986].RomanBritain:aSourcebook.London:Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-47178-7. AndreasKakoschke(2011).DiePersonennamenimrömischenBritannien[PersonalnamesinRomanBritain].Hildesheim:Olms-Weidmann.ISBN 978-3-487-14628-7. A.L.F.Rivet;C.Smith(1979).ThePlace-namesofRomanBritain.London:Batsford.ISBN 978-0-7134-2077-7. Trade[edit] CésarCarrerasMonfortandP.P.A.Funari(1998).BritanniayelMediterráneo:EstudiosSobreelAbastecimientodeAceiteBéticoyafricanoenBritannia[BritainandtheMediterranean:StudiesontheBeticandAfricanoilsupplyinBritannia](inSpanish).Barcelona:PublicacionsUniversitatdeBarcelona.ISBN 978-84-475-1950-7. JoanduPlatTaylor;HenryCleere,eds.(1978).RomanShippingandTrade:BritainandtheRhineProvinces.London:CouncilforBritishArchaeology.ISBN 978-0-900312-62-5. MichaelFulford(1977),"PotteryandBritain'sforeigntradeintheLaterRomanperiod",inD.P.S.Peacock(ed.),PotteryandEarlyCommerce.CharacterizationandTradeinRomanandLaterCeramics,London:AcademicPress,pp. 35–84,ISBN 978-0-12-547850-2 MichaelFulford(1984),"DemonstratingBritannia'seconomicdependenceinthefirstandsecondcenturies",inT.F.C.Blagg;AnthonyKing(eds.),MilitaryandCivilianinRomanBritain:CulturalRelationshipsinaFrontierProvince,Oxford:BritishArchaeologicalReports,pp. 129–142,ISBN 9780860542964 MichaelFulford(1991),"BritainandtheRomanEmpire:theevidenceforregionalandlongdistancetrade",inR.F.J.Jones(ed.),RomanBritain:RecentTrends,Sheffield:J.R.CollisPublications,pp. 35–47,ISBN 978-0-906090-39-8 MichaelFulford(2007),"CoastingBritannia:RomantradeandtrafficaroundtheshoresofBritain",inChrisGosden;HelenaHamerow;PhilipdeJersey;GaryLock(eds.),CommunitiesandConnections:EssaysinHonourofBarryCunliffe,OxfordUniversityPress,pp. 54–74,ISBN 978-0-19-923034-1 FrancisMorris(2010).NorthSeaandChannelConnectivityduringtheLateIronAgeandRomanPeriod(175/150BC –409 AD).BritishArchaeologicalReportsInternationalSeries.Oxford:Archaeopress. D.P.S.Peacock;D.F.Williams(1986).AmphoraeintheRomanEconomy.London:Longman.ISBN 978-0-582-06555-0. PaulTyers(1996).RomanPotteryinBritain.London:Batsford.ISBN 978-0-7134-7412-1. PaulTyers(1996)."RomanamphorasinBritain".InternetArchaeology.CouncilforBritishArchaeology.1.doi:10.11141/ia.1.6. Economy[edit] L.Allason-Jones(2002)."ThejetindustryandalliedtradesinRomanBritain".InPeterR.Wilson;JenniferPrice(eds.).AspectsofIndustryinRomanYorkshireandtheNorth.Oxford:Oxbow.pp. 125–132.ISBN 978-1-84217-078-6. J.R.L.Allen;MichaelFulford(1996)."ThedistributionofSouth-EastDorsetBlackBurnishedCategoryIPotteryinSouth-WestBritain".Britannia.SocietyforthePromotionofRomanStudies.27:223–281.doi:10.2307/527045.JSTOR 527045. J.R.L.Allen;MichaelFulford;J.A.Todd(2007)."BurntKimmeridgianshaleatEarlyRomanSilchester,south-eastEngland,andtheRomanPoole-Purbeckcomplex-agglomeratedgeomaterialsindustry".OxfordJournalofArchaeology.26(2):167–191.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.2007.00279.x. HenryCleere;D.Crossley(1995).JeremyHodgkinson(ed.).TheIronIndustryoftheWeald(2nd ed.).MertonPrioryPress.ISBN 978-1-898937-04-3. MichaelFulford(1989),"TheeconomyofRomanBritain",inMalcolmTodd(ed.),ResearchonRomanBritain1960–89,London:SocietyforthePromotionofRomanStudies,pp. 175–201,ISBN 978-0-907764-13-7 MichaelFulford(2004),"EconomicStructures",inMalcolmTodd(ed.),ACompaniontoRomanBritain,Oxford:Blackwell,ISBN 978-0-631-21823-4 C.J.Going(1992)."Economic'LongWaves'intheRomanPeriod?AReconnaissanceoftheRomano-BritishCeramicEvidence".OxfordJournalofArchaeology.11(1):93–117.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.1992.tb00259.x. BarriJones;DavidMattingly(2002)[firstpublishedin1990].AnAtlasofRomanBritain(New ed.).Oxford:Oxbow.ISBN 978-1-84217-067-0.(seepp. 179–232). DavidMattingly(2006).AnImperialPossession:BritainintheRomanEmpire.Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0.(seepp. 491–528). RichardReece(2002).TheCoinageofRomanBritain.Stroud:TheHistoryPress.ISBN 978-0-7524-2523-8. PaulTyers(1996).RomanPotteryinBritain.London:Batsford.ISBN 978-0-7134-7412-1. ChristopherJ.Young(1977).TheRomanPotteryIndustryoftheOxfordRegion.BritishArchaeologicalReports.Oxford:Archaeopress.ISBN 978-0-86054-001-4. Provincialgovernment[edit] AnthonyR.Birley(2005).TheRomanGovernmentofBritain.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-925237-4. Provincialdevelopment[edit] AlfonsoBurgers(2001).TheWaterSuppliesandRelatedStructuresofRomanBritain.BritishArchaeologicalReports.Oxford:Archaeopress.ISBN 978-1-84171-189-8. BarriJones;DavidMattingly(2002)[firstpublishedin1990].AnAtlasofRomanBritain(New ed.).Oxford:Oxbow.ISBN 978-1-84217-067-0.(seepp. 141–178). IvanD.Margary(1973)[firstpublished1967].RomanRoadsinBritain(3rd ed.).London:J.Baker.ISBN 978-0-212-97001-8.OCLC 491650913. DavidMattingly(2006).AnImperialPossession:BritainintheRomanEmpire.Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0. MartinMillet(1992)[firstpublished1990].TheRomanizationofBritain:anessayinarchaeologicalinterpretation.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-42864-4. TheRomanmilitaryinBritain[edit] YvetteRathbone;D.W.Rathbone(2012).LiterarySourcesforRomanBritain.LACTOR11(4th ed.).ISBN 978-0-903625-35-7.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7October2014. JuliusCaesar.CommentariesontheGallicWar.58–54BC. AlanK.Bowman(2004).LifeandLettersontheRomanFrontier:VindolandaanditsPeople(2ndrevised ed.).London:BritishMuseumPress.ISBN 978-0-7141-2246-5. BarriJones;DavidMattingly(2002)[firstpublishedin1990].AnAtlasofRomanBritain(New ed.).Oxford:Oxbow.ISBN 978-1-84217-067-0.(seepp. 64–140). JohnManley(2002).AD43:TheRomanInvasionofBritain:aReassessment.TheHistoryPress.ISBN 978-0-7524-1959-6. DavidJ.P.Mason(2009).RomanBritainandtheRomanNavy(Paperback1st ed.).TheHistoryPress.ISBN 978-0-7524-2541-2. DavidMattingly(2006).AnImperialPossession:BritainintheRomanEmpire.Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0.(seepp. 85–252). AndrewPearson(2002).TheRomanShoreForts:CoastalDefencesofSouthernBritain.TheHistoryPress.ISBN 978-0-7524-1949-7. Urbanlife[edit] DavidMattingly(2006).AnImperialPossession:BritainintheRomanEmpire.Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0.(seepp. 253–350). MartinMillet(1992)[firstpublishedin1990].TheRomanizationofBritain:anessayinarchaeologicalinterpretation.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-42864-4. JohnWacher(1995).TheTownsofRomanBritain(2ndrevised ed.).Routledge.ISBN 978-0-7134-7319-3. Rurallife[edit] BarriJones;DavidMattingly(2002)[firstpublishedin1990].AnAtlasofRomanBritain(New ed.).Oxford:Oxbow.ISBN 978-1-84217-067-0.(seepp. 233–263). DavidMattingly(2006).AnImperialPossession:BritainintheRomanEmpire.Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0.(seepp. 351–427). MartinMillet(1992)[firstpublishedin1990].TheRomanizationofBritain:anessayinarchaeologicalinterpretation.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-42864-4. JohnPercival(1976).TheRomanVilla:AHistoricalIntroduction.BatsfordStudiesinArchaeology.London:Batsford.ISBN 978-0-7134-3238-1. Religion[edit] MartinHenig(1984).ReligioninRomanBritain.London:Batsford.ISBN 978-0-7134-1220-8. BarriJones;DavidMattingly(2002)[firstpublishedin1990].AnAtlasofRomanBritain(New ed.).Oxford:Oxbow.ISBN 978-1-84217-067-0.(seepp. 264–305). Art[edit] MartinHenig(1995).TheArtofRomanBritain.London:Batsford.ISBN 978-0-7134-5430-7. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoRomanBritain. RomanBritainonInOurTimeattheBBC TimelineofRomanBritainatBBC TheRomansinBritain–InformationontheRomansinBritain,includingeverydaylife RomanBritain–everythingtodowithRomanBritain,especiallygeographic,military,andadministrative TheRomanArmyandNavyinBritain,byPeterGreen RomanBritain,byGuydelaBédoyère RomanBritainatLacusCurtius "RomanLondon:"Intheirownwords""(PDF).byKevinFlude RomanBritain –History RomanColchester RomanWalesRCAHMW TheRuralSettlementofRomanBritain-databaseofexcavatedevidenceforruralsettlements vteProvincesofRomanBritainAD 43 – c. 197Britannia Camulodunum(Colchester) Londinium(London) c. 197 – c. 296BritanniaSuperior Londinium(London) BritanniaInferior Eboracum(York) c. 296 – c. 410BritanniaI CoriniumDobunnorum?(Cirencester) BritanniaII Eboracum?(York) FlaviaCaesariensis LindumColonia?(Lincoln) MaximaCaesariensis Londinium?(London) c. 369 – c. 410Valentia Luguvalium?(Carlisle) DevaVictrix?(Chester) Habitancum?(Risingham) Apocryphalprovinces Vespasiana Orcades Placenamesinbracketsarepresent-daynamesQuestionmarksdenoteuncertainassociations vteMajortownsofRomanBritainPlacenamesinbracketsareeitherpresent-daynamesorcountieswherethetownsformerlyexisted.CapitalsBritanniaSuperior Londinium(London) BritanniaInferior Eboracum(York) Camulodunum(Colchester) Surviving Caesaromagus(Chelmsford) CoriniumDobunnorum(Cirencester) DevaVictrix(Chester) Durnovaria(Dorchester) DurovernumCantiacorum(Canterbury) Glevum(Gloucester) IscaAugusta(Caerleon) IscaDumnoniorum(Exeter) IsuriumBrigantum(Aldborough) Lactodurum(Towcester) LindumColonia(Lincoln) Luguvalium(Carlisle) Moridunum(Carmarthen) NoviomagusReginorum(Chichester) Petuaria(Brough) RataeCorieltauvorum(Leicester) VentaBelgarum(Winchester) VentaSilurum(Caerwent) Verulamium(StAlbans) ViroconiumCornoviorum(Wroxeter) Extinct Alchester(Wendlebury) Bannaventa(Northamptonshire) CallevaAtrebatum(Hampshire) Cunetio(Wiltshire) VentaIcenorum(Norfolk) ListofRomanplacenamesinBritain vteProvincesoftheearlyRomanEmpire(117AD) Achaia Aegyptus Africaproconsularis AlpesCottiae AlpesMaritimae AlpesGraiaeetPoeninae ArabiaPetraea Armenia Asia Assyria BithyniaandPontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia CorsicaandSardinia CreteandCyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia GalliaAquitania GalliaBelgica GalliaLugdunensis GalliaNarbonensis GermaniaInferior GermaniaSuperior HispaniaBaetica HispaniaLusitania HispaniaTarraconensis Italia† Iudaea LyciaetPamphylia Macedonia MauretaniaCaesariensis MauretaniaTingitana Mesopotamia MoesiaInferior MoesiaSuperior Noricum PannoniaInferior PannoniaSuperior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia †Italywasneverconstitutedasaprovince,insteadretainingaspecialjuridicalstatusuntilDiocletian'sreforms. vteLateRomanandByzantineprovinces(4th–7thcenturiesAD)HistoryAsfoundintheNotitiaDignitatum.ProvincialadministrationreformedanddiocesesestablishedbyDiocletian,c. 293.PermanentpraetorianprefecturesestablishedafterthedeathofConstantineI.Empirepermanentlypartitionedafter395.ExarchatesofRavennaandAfricaestablishedafter584.Aftermassiveterritoriallossesinthe7thcentury,theremainingprovincesweresupersededbythethemesysteminc. 640–660,althoughinAsiaMinorandpartsofGreecetheysurvivedunderthethemesuntiltheearly9thcentury.WesternRomanEmpire(395–476)PraetorianprefectureofGaulDioceseofGaul AlpesPoeninaeetGraiae BelgicaI BelgicaII GermaniaI GermaniaII LugdunensisI LugdunensisII LugdunensisIII LugdunensisIV MaximaSequanorum DioceseofVienne1 AlpesMaritimae AquitanicaI AquitanicaII NarbonensisI NarbonensisII Novempopulania Viennensis DioceseofSpain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania MauretaniaTingitana Tarraconensis DioceseoftheBritains BritanniaI BritanniaII FlaviaCaesariensis MaximaCaesariensis Valentia(?) PraetorianprefectureofItalyDioceseofSuburbicarianItaly ApuliaetCalabria Campania Corsica LucaniaetBruttii PicenumSuburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia TusciaetUmbria Valeria DioceseofAnnonarianItaly AlpesCottiae FlaminiaetPicenumAnnonarium LiguriaetAemilia RaetiaI RaetiaII VenetiaetHistria DioceseofAfrica2 Africaproconsularis(Zeugitana) Byzacena MauretaniaCaesariensis MauretaniaSitifensis Numidia(dividedasCirtensisandMilitianaduringtheTetrarchy) Tripolitania EasternRomanEmpire(395–c.640)PraetorianprefectureofIllyricumDioceseofPannonia3 Dalmatia Noricummediterraneum Noricumripense PannoniaI PannoniaII Savia Valeriaripensis DioceseofDacia DaciaMediterranea DaciaRipensis Dardania MoesiaI Praevalitana DioceseofMacedonia Achaea Creta EpirusNova EpirusVetus MacedoniaPrima MacedoniaIISalutaris Thessalia PraetorianprefectureoftheEastDioceseofThrace5 Europa Haemimontus MoesiaII4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia DioceseofAsia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia(370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia PhrygiaPacatiana PhrygiaSalutaris DioceseofPontus5 ArmeniaI5 ArmeniaII5 ArmeniaMaior5 ArmenianSatrapies5 ArmeniaIII(536) ArmeniaIV(536) Bithynia CappadociaI5 CappadociaII5 GalatiaI5 GalatiaIISalutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 PontusPolemoniacus5 DioceseoftheEast5 Arabia CiliciaI CiliciaII Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene PalaestinaI PalaestinaII PalaestinaIIISalutaris PhoeniceI PhoeniceIILibanensis SyriaI SyriaIISalutaris Theodorias(528) DioceseofEgypt5 AegyptusI AegyptusII Arcadia AugustamnicaI AugustamnicaII LibyaSuperior LibyaInferior ThebaisSuperior ThebaisInferior Otherterritories Taurica Quaesturaexercitus(536) Spania(552) 1 LatertheSeptemProvinciae 2 Re-establishedafterreconquestbytheEasternEmpirein534astheseparatePrefectureofAfrica 3 LatertheDioceseofIllyricum 4 PlacedundertheQuaesturaexercitusin536 5 Affected(i.e.boundariesmodified,abolishedorrenamed)byJustinianI'sadministrativereorganizationin534–536 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Illyria Hispania Britannia Germania Asia Scythia Anatolia Levant(GreaterSyria) Arabia Africa Libya Aegyptus Carthage Igbo-Ukwu vteHistoryoftheBritishIslesOverview UnitedKingdom England IsleofWight IslesofScilly Scotland Shetland Orkney InnerHebrides OuterHebrides Wales Anglesey NorthernIreland Ireland IsleofMan(Mann) ChannelIslands Jersey Guernsey Prehistoricperiod PrehistoricBritain PrehistoricEngland PrehistoricScotland PrehistoricShetland PrehistoricOrkney PrehistoricWales PrehistoricIreland PrehistoricMann Classicalperiod RomanBritain RomanScotland RomanWales ProtohistoricIreland,RomanIreland EndofRomanrule Sub-RomanBritain Medievalperiod MedievalEngland EarlymedievalEngland HighmedievalEngland LatemedievalEngland MedievalScotland EarlymedievalScotland HighmedievalScotland LatemedievalScotland MedievalWales EarlymedievalWales HighmedievalWales LatemedievalWales MedievalIreland EarlymedievalIreland HighmedievalIreland LatemedievalIreland MedievalMann Earlymodernperiod 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Categories:RomanBritain1stcenturyinEngland2ndcenturyinEngland3rdcenturyinEngland4thcenturyinEngland5thcenturyinEnglandStatesandterritoriesestablishedinthe40sStatesandterritoriesdisestablishedinthe5thcentury40sestablishmentsintheRomanEmpire1st-centuryestablishmentsinRomanBritain410disestablishments410sdisestablishmentsintheRomanEmpire5th-centurydisestablishmentsinRomanBritain4thcenturyinWales5thcenturyinWalesFormercountriesintheBritishIslesHistoryofEnglandbyperiodHiddencategories:CS1Latin-languagesources(la)CS1foreignlanguagesources(ISO639-2)Allarticleswithspecificallymarkedweasel-wordedphrasesArticleswithspecificallymarkedweasel-wordedphrasesfromFebruary2015ArticleswithLatin-languagesources(la)ArticlescontainingLatin-languagetextCS1Spanish-languagesources(es)ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataUseBritishEnglishfromAugust2010UsedmydatesfromAugust2019FormercountryarticlesrequiringmaintenanceArticlescontainingAncientGreek(to1453)-languagetextAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromMarch2022ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromFebruary2015CommonscategorylinkisonWikidataArticleswithISNIidentifiersArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNKCidentifiers 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