QING DYNASTY ART, PAINTING AND CULTURE - Facts ...

Qing Dynasty Art ... Art produced during the Qing period was particularly ornate. Incorporating Tibetan, Middle Eastern, Indian and European influences, it ... Home China History-Ming-andQing-EraChinaandForeignIntrusions QINGDYNASTYART,PAINTINGANDCULTURE QINGDYNASTYCULTURE ChenHongshu,self-portrait,1635 MaxwellK.HearnofTheMetropolitanMuseumofArtwrote:TheManchusestablishedtheirhegemonyoverChineseculturaltraditionsasanimportantmeansofdemonstratingtheirlegitimacyasConfucian-stylerulers.ThecourtbecamealeadingpatronintheartsasChinaenjoyedanextendedperiodofpoliticalstabilityandeconomicprosperity.ThebrilliantreignsoftheKangxi(r.1662–1722)andQianlong(r.1736–95)emperorsdisplayaperiodwhentheManchusembracedChineseculturaltraditionsandthecourtbecamealeadingpatronintheartsasChinaenjoyedanextendedperiodofpoliticalstabilityandeconomicprosperity.[Source:MaxwellK.Hearn,DepartmentofAsianArt,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArtMetropolitanMuseumofArtmetmuseum.org\^/] WangYimin,aspecialistinancientChinesecalligraphyatthePalaceMuseum,toldtheChinaDaily:."SuccessiveManchuemperors,stigmatizedbywhattheyfeltwastheirlackofculturalsophistication,wenttogreatlengthstoensuretheiroffspringwouldberaisedinthemostclassicoftheHanliterarytradition.Tosubmergethemselvesinthistraditionwastobeabletocommunicatewithsociety'seliteandthustogainlegitimacytorule.Avitalpartofthattraditionisvisual."[Source:ZhaoXu,ChinaDaily,December19,2015] Buddhism,particularlyTibetanBuddhism,madeitspresencefelt.AccordingtotheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei:“IntheQingdynasty(1644-1911),manymembersoftheimperialclanweredevoutfollowersofBuddhism.ThecourtsintheKangxiandQianlongreignswitnessedthetranscriptionandprintingoftheKanjurTripitakainTibetanandtheTripitakainManchu,whiletheYongzhengEmperor(r.1723-1735)selectedandeditedthecontentsofRecordofImperiallySelectedLecturesandImperialRecordofaDropinanOceanofSutras.Intheimperialpalace,manybuildingsincludedlecturehallsforBuddhistscripturesandplacesforofferingstoBuddhistimages,whilenumerousdisplaysandcollectionsofBuddhistpaintingsandsutrabookswerefoundatotherlocations.[Source:NationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei] WolframEberhardwrotein“AHistoryofChina”:“InthisKangxiperiodculturebegantoflourishagain.Theemperorhadattractedthegentry,andsotheintelligentsia,tohiscourtbecausehisuneducatedManchuscouldnotalonehaveadministeredtheenormousempire;andheshowedgreatinterestinChineseculture,himselfdelveddeeplyintoit,andhadmanyworkscompiled,especiallyworksofanencyclopaediccharacter.Theencyclopaediasenabledinformationtoberapidlygainedonallsortsofsubjects,andthuswerejustwhataninterestedrulerneeded,especiallywhen,asaforeigner,hewasnotinapositiontogainreallythoroughinstructioninthingsChinese.[Source:“AHistoryofChina”byWolframEberhard,1951,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley] TheChineseencyclopaediasoftheseventeenthandespeciallyoftheeighteenthcenturywerethustheoutcomeoftheinitiativeoftheManchurianemperor,andwerecompiledforhisinformation;theywerenotdue,liketheFrenchencyclopaediasoftheeighteenthcentury,toamovementforthespreadofknowledgeamongthepeople.ForthislatterpurposethegiganticencyclopaediasoftheManchus,eachofwhichfillsseveralbookcases,weremuchtooexpensiveandwereprintedinmuchtoolimitededitions.ThecompilationsbeganwiththegreatgeographicalencyclopaediaofKuYen-wu(1613-1682),andattainedtheirclimaxinthegiganticeighteenth-centuryencyclopaediaT'u-shuchi-ch'eng,scientificallyimpeccableintheaccuracyofitsreferencestosources.Herewerealreadythebeginningsofthe"ArchaeologicalSchool",builtupinthecourseoftheeighteenthcentury.Thisschoolwasusuallycalled"Hanschool"becausetheadherentswentbacktothecommentariesoftheclassicaltextswritteninHantimeanddiscardedtheorthodoxexplanationsofZhuXi'sschoolofSongtime.Later,itsmostprominentleaderwasTaiChen(1723-1777).Taiwasgreatlyinterestedintechnologyandscience;hecanberegardedasthefirstphilosopherwhoexhibitedanempirical,scientificwayofthinking.LatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyChinesescholarshipisgreatlyobligedtohim. WebsiteontheQingDynastyWikipediaWikipedia;QingDynastyExplaineddrben.net/ChinaReport;RecordingofGrandeurofQinglearn.columbia.eduMingandQingTombsUNESCOWorldHeritageSite:UNESCOWorldHeritageSiteMap;ForbiddenCity:FORBIDDENCITYfactsanddetails.com/china;Wikipedia;UNESCOWorldHeritageSiteSitesWorldHeritageSite;TempleofHeaven:WikipediaWikipediaUNESCOWorldHeritageSiteUNESCOWorldHeritageSite;EmpressDowagerCixi:CourtLifeDuringtheTimeofEmpressDowagerCixietext.virginia.edu;WikipediaarticleWikipedia;BooksonCixiroyalty.nu;TheLastEmperorPuyiWikipediaarticleWikipedia;HisWidow'sAccounthartford-hwp.com/archives;PuyiBiographyroyalty.nu/AsiaChineseHistory:VisualSourcebookofChineseCivilizationdepts.washington.edu;ChaosGroupofUniversityofMarylandchaos.umd.edu/history/toc;WWWVL:HistoryChinavlib.iue.it/history/asia;3)WikipediaarticleontheHistoryofChinaWikipedia;Books:"CambridgeHistoryofChina"multiplevolumes(CambridgeUniversityPress);"ChronicleoftheChineseEmperor"byAnnPaludan,"TheLastEmperors:ASocialHistoryoftheQingImperialInstitutions"byEvelynS.Rawski(UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1999)."ForbiddenCity"byFrancesWood,aBritishSinologist, WebsitesandSourcesonChinesePaintingandCalligraphy:ChinaOnlineMuseumchinaonlinemuseum.com;Painting,UniversityofWashingtondepts.washington.edu;Calligraphy,UniversityofWashingtondepts.washington.edu;WebsitesandSourcesonChineseArt:China-ArtHistoryResourcesart-and-archaeology.com;ArtHistoryResourcesontheWebwitcombe.sbc.edu;;ModernChineseLiteratureandCulture(MCLC)VisualArts/mclc.osu.edu;AsianArt.comasianart.com;ChinaOnlineMuseumchinaonlinemuseum.com;QingArtlearn.columbia.eduMuseumswithFirstRateCollectionsofChineseArtNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipeinpm.gov.tw;BeijingPalaceMuseumdpm.org.cn;MetropolitanMuseumofArtmetmuseum.org;SacklerMuseuminWashingtonasia.si.edu/collections;ShanghaiMuseumshanghaimuseum.net;Books:“TheArtsofChina”byMichaelSullivan(UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2000);“ChinesePainting”byJamesCahill(Rizzoli1985);“PossessingthePast:TreasuresfromtheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei”byWenC.Fong,andJamesC.Y.Watt(MetropolitanMuseumofArt,1996);“ThreeThousandYearsofChinesePainting”byRichardM.Barnhart,etal.(YaleUniversityPressandForeignLanguagesPress,1997);“ArtinChina”byCraigClunas(OxfordUniversityPress,1997);“ChineseArt”byMaryTregear(Thames&Hudson:1997);“HowtoReadChinesePaintings”byMaxwellK.Hearn(MetropolitanMuseumofArt,2008) RELATEDARTICLESINTHISWEBSITE: MING-ANDQING-ERACHINAANDFOREIGNINTRUSIONSfactsanddetails.com;QING(MANCHU)DYNASTY(1644-1912)factsanddetails.com; MANCHUS—THERULERSOFTHEQINGDYNASTY—ANDTHEIRHISTORYfactsanddetails.com; CHINESEPAINTING:THEMES,STYLES,AIMSANDIDEASfactsanddetails.com; CHINESEART:IDEAS,APPROACHESANDSYMBOLSfactsanddetails.com; CHINESEPAINTINGFORMATSANDMATERIALS:INK,SEALS,HANDSCROLLS,ALBUMLEAVESANDFANSfactsanddetails.com; SUBJECTSOFCHINESEPAINTING:INSECTS,FISH,MOUNTAINSANDWOMENfactsanddetails.com; CHINESELANDSCAPEPAINTINGfactsanddetails.com; KANXI(ruled1662–1722)factsanddetails.com; YONGZHENGEMPEROR(ruled1722-1735)factsanddetails.com; QIANLONGEMPEROR(ruled1736–95)factsanddetails.com; QINGLIFEfactsanddetails.com; QINGGOVERNMENTfactsanddetails.com; QING-ANDMING-ERAECONOMYfactsanddetails.com; MING-QINGECONOMYANDFOREIGNTRADEfactsanddetails.com; CHINESESHIPS,SEADEFENSESANDMARITIMETRADEINTHEQINGDYNASTYfactsanddetails.com; QING-ERACHINESEPIRATESfactsanddetails.com; EMPRESSDOWAGERCIXI,HERLOVERSANDATTEMPTEDREFORMSfactsanddetails.com; PUYI:THELASTEMPEROROFCHINAfactsanddetails.com QingDynastyLiteratiandScholar-Artists AccordingtoColumbiaUniversity’sAsiaforEducators:“InChina,theliterateelitewereoftenreferredtoasthe"literati."Theliteratiwerethegentryclass,composedofindividualswhopassedthecivilserviceexams(orthoseforwhomthiswasthemajorgoalinlife)andwhowereboththescholarlyandgovernmentaleliteofthesociety.Theliteratialsopridedthemselvesontheirmasteryofcalligraphy.Often,asanadjuncttocalligraphy,theywerealsoabletopaint.DuringtheQingdynasty,boththeIndividualistsandtheOrthodoxschoolmasterscamefromthiselitescholarclass.[Source:AsiaforEducators,ColumbiaUniversity,MaxwellK.Hearn,Consultantlearn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu] QianglongEmperordoingcalligraphy “TheScholar-Artists:TheIndividualistandOrthodoxmasterswereproficientscholarswhooftenembellishedtheirpaintingswithpoetry.Thesemenwerepartofalong-standingtraditionofthe"scholar-artist"thathadexistedinChinaasfarbackasthe11thcentury.Membersoftheeducatedelite,alsocalledthe"literati,"hadalreadytakenpossessionofcalligraphy—theartofwriting—asaformofself-expression.Butbythe11thcentury,theybegantoapplytheaestheticprinciplesofcalligraphicbrushworktopainting.Theybeganbypaintingsubjectsthatcouldbedepictedeasilywiththebrushtechniquesthattheyhadmasteredintheartofcalligraphy,suchasbamboo,rocks,andpinetrees.Thisapproachtosubjectmattersetscholar-artistsapartfromcommercialartists,whopursuedamorerepresentationalmanner. “WangHuiandtheOrthodoxSchoolofPainting:ItwasastrokeofgeniusonthepartoftheKangxiEmperortoenlisttheforemostOrthodoxschoolmaster,WangHui(1632-1717),todirectthepaintingofthemonumentalSouthernInspectionTourscrolls,theexecutionofwhichwassuretobeanenormouschallenge.WangHuiwasoneoftheleadingartistsofthetimeandanacknowledgedmasteratcreatinglonglandscapecompositionsinthehandscrollformat.Furthermore,hisselectionimmediatelyidentifiedtheQingcourtwithChina'smostreveredartistictraditions.” EuropeanInfluencesonQingCulture WolframEberhardwrotein“AHistoryofChina”:“AboutthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturytheinfluenceofEuropebecamemoreandmoremarked.TranslationbeganwithYenFu(1853-1921),whotranslatedthefirstphilosophicalandscientificbooksandbooksonsocialquestionsandmadehiscompatriotsacquaintedwithWesternthought.AtthesametimeLinShu(1852-1924)translatedthefirstWesternshortstoriesandnovels.Withthesetwobeganthenewstyle,whichwassoonelaboratedbyLiangCh'i-Chao,acollaboratorofSunYat-sen's,andbyothers,andwhichultimatelyproducedthe"literaryrevolution"of1917.Translationhascontinuedtothisday;almosteverybookofoutstandingimportanceinworldliteratureistranslatedwithinafewmonthsofitsappearance,andontheaveragethesetranslationsareofafairlyhighlevel. “AsecondgroupofQingartistsincludedthosemenwhodedicatedthemselvestothepreservationofChinesetraditionalculturebyreturningtothecarefulstudyofacanonofearliermastersthathadbeendefinedinthe17thcentury.Theircommitmenttoreplicatingandbeinginspiredbythisearliercanonofmasterpiecesledtothelabelingoftheseartistsas"theOrthodoxschool."TheOrthodoxmastersmadeapointoffirstimitatingtheseestablishedearliermodelsandthentryingtoincorporatethesestylistictraditionsintotheirownwork.Theyoftencreatedalbumsofpaintingswhereineachleafwouldbedevotedtotheexpositionofaspecificearlierstyle.Inthisway,aparticularalbumwoulddemonstrateanindividual'scommandoverawholerangeofearlierstylistictraditions.[Readmoreabouttraditionalistsand"theOrthodoxschool"atTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.]. “AthirdgroupofQingartistsincludedcommercialandcourtartistswhospecializedinlarge-scaledecorativeworks.Suchartistswereemployedbytheimperialcourttoproducedocumentary,commemorative,anddecorativeworksfortheimperialpalaces.Mastersoftechnique,theseartistsdrewupontherepresentationalstylesoftheSongdynasty,whenmeticulouslydescriptivepaintingtechniqueswerehighlyrevered.[ReadmoreaboutprofessionalandcourtartistsatTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.]. ChineseApproachestotheWorkofArt AccordingtoColumbiaUniversity’sAsiaforEducators:“PersonalExpressionValuedOver"Realism":Although"realistic"paintingintheEuropeanstylewasverymuchinvogueattheQingcourt,whereitwasappreciatedforitsdocumentaryvalueincommemoratingtheQianlongEmperor'sexploits,itwasnotregardedas"highart."TheChineseandtheirManchurulersheldtothebeliefthatthehighestformofpictorialexpressionwastraditionalChinesepainting,whichprivilegedthepersonalexpressionoftheindividualartistovertherepresentationofexternalappearances.Sincethe14thcenturywhatmatteredmostinChinesepaintingwastheartist'sabilitytoexpresshispersonalfeelings—tocreateanimageofhisinteriorworld—ratherthantodescribetheexternalappearancesofthings.Asaresult,mostChinesepaintingconnoisseursregardedtheEuropeanstyleaslittlemorethanagimmick.[Source:AsiaforEducators,ColumbiaUniversity,MaxwellK.Hearn,Consultantlearn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu] “Themissionariesplayedanimportantpartatcourt.ThefirstManchuemperorswereasgenerousinthismatterastheMongolshadbeen,andallowedtheforeignerstoworkinpeace.TheyshowedspecialinterestintheEuropeanscienceintroducedbythemissionaries;theyhadlesssympathyfortheirreligiousmessage.Themissionaries,fortheirpart,senttoEuropeenthusiasticaccountsofthewonderfulconditionsinChina,andsohelpedtopopularizetheideathatwasbeingformedinEuropeofan"enlightened",aconstitutional,monarchy.TheleadersoftheEnlightenmentreadthesereportswithenthusiasm,withtheresultthattheyhadaninfluenceontheFrenchRevolution.Confuciuswasfoundparticularlyattractive,andwasregardedasaforerunneroftheEnlightenment.The"Monadism"ofthephilosopherLeibnizwasinfluencedbythesereports. “Themissionariesgainedareputationatcourtas"scientists",andinthistheywereofservicebothtoChinaandtoEurope.ThebehaviouroftheEuropeanmerchantswhofollowedthemissions,spreadinggraduallyingrowingnumbersalongthecoastsofChina,wasnotbyanymeanssoirreproachable.TheChinesewerecertainlyjustifiedwhentheydeclaredthatEuropeanshipsoftenmadelandingsonthecoastandsimplylooted,justastheJapanesehaddonebeforethem.Reportsofthiscametothecourt,andascapturedforeignersdescribedthemselvesas"Christians"andalsoseemedtohavesomeconnectionwiththemissionarieslivingatcourt,andasdisputeshadbrokenoutamongthemissionariesthemselvesinconnectionwithpapalecclesiasticalpolicy,intheYongzhengperiod(1723-1736;thenameoftheemperorwasShihTsung)Christianitywasplacedunderageneralban,beingregardedasasecretpoliticalorganization. Qing-EraLiterature WolframEberhardwrotein“AHistoryofChina”:“ThemostfamousliteraryworksoftheManchuepochbelongoncemoretothefieldwhichChinesedonotregardasthatoftrueliterature—thenovel,theshortstory,andthedrama.Poetrydidexist,butitkepttotheoldpathsandhadfewfreshideas.AllthevariousformsoftheSongperiodweremadeuseof.Theessayists,too,offerednothingnew,thoughtheirnumberwaslegion.OneofthebestknownisYuanMei(1716-1797),whowasalsotheauthorofthecollectionofshortstoriesTse-pu-yu("TheMasterdidnottell"),whichisregardedveryhighlybytheChinese.ThevolumeofshortstoriesentitledLiao-chaichich-i,byP'uSong-lin(1640-1715?),isworld-famousandhasbeentranslatedintoeverycivilizedlanguage.Bothcollectionsaredistinguishedbytheirsimplebutelegantstyle.Theshortstorywaspopularamongthegreatergentry;itabandonedthepopularstyleithadintheMingepoch,andadoptedthepolishedlanguageofscholars.[Source:“AHistoryofChina”byWolframEberhard,1951,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley] “TheManchuepochhaslefttouswhatisbygeneralconsentthefinestnovelinChineseliterature,Hung-lou-meng("TheDreamoftheRedChamber"),byTs'aoHsueh-ch'in,whodiedin1763.Itdescribesthedownfallofarichandpowerfulfamilyfromthehighestrankofthegentry,andthedecadentson'sloveofayoungandemotionalladyofthehighestcircles.Thestoryisclothedinamysticalgarbthatdoessomethingtosoftenitstragicending.TheinterestingnovelJu-linwai-shih("PrivateReportsfromtheLifeofScholars"),byWuChing-tzu(1701-1754),isamordantcriticismofConfucianismwithitsrigidformalism,ofthesocialsystem,andoftheexaminationsystem.Socialcriticismisthethemeofmanynovels.ThemostmoderninspiritoftheworksofthisperiodisperhapsthetreatmentoffeminisminthenovelChing-hua-yuan,byLiYu-chên(d.1830),whichdemandedequalrightsformenandwomen. “ThedramadevelopedquicklyintheManchuepoch,particularlyinquantity,especiallysincetheemperorsgreatlyappreciatedthetheatre.Acatalogueofplayscompiledin1781contains1,013titles!Someofthesedramaswereofunprecedentedlength.Oneofthemwasplayedin26partscontaining240acts;aperformancetooktwoyearstocomplete!ProbablythefinestdramasoftheManchuepocharethoseofLiYu(born1611),whoalsobecamethefirstoftheChinesedramaticcritics.Whathehadtosayabouttheartofthetheatre,andaboutaestheticsingeneral,isstillworthreading. QingDynastyArt IntheSilencebyDongQichang ArtproducedduringtheQingperiodwasparticularlyornate.IncorporatingTibetan,MiddleEastern,IndianandEuropeaninfluences,itincludedelaboratelycarvedwood,baroqueceramics,heavilyembroideredgarments,andintricatelyworkedgoldandrhinoceroshorn.AmongthemoreextravagantpiecesofQingartaresilkcostumesmadewithappliqueembroidery;aroyalhatmadeofsable,silkfloss,gold,pearlsandfeathers;andafive-foot-highcloisonneelephantwithalamponitsback. HollandCotterwroteintheNewYorkTimes:“WhattheQingwantedincourtartwasmore:moreingenuity,morevirtuosity,morebellsandwhistles,extraeverything.Whenitcametoscale,theywentforextremes,theteensyandthecolossal,cupsthesizeofthimbles,jadesthesizeofboulders.TheConfucianmiddlewaywasnottheirway.” Qingartincludedlarge-scaleportraits,silkrobes,paintedscreens,handscrolls,headdresses,fans,braceletsandfurniture.Someofthebestartworksweresmall.A19thcenturyhairornamentwithdragonswasdecoratedwithpearls,coral,kingfisherfeathersandsilverwithgilding.Onalarger,Buddhiststupamadefromgoldandsilver,SebastianSmeewroteintheWashingtonPost:Thestupa,whichisadornedwithcoral,turquoise,lapislazuliandothersemipreciousstones,wascommissionedbytheQianlongEmperorinhonorofhismother,theEmpressDowagerChongqing,afterherdeath.Insideisaboxwithalockofherhair.TheQianlongEmperormicromanageditscreation,continuallyissuingnewinstructions,sothatitendedupbeingtwiceastallandfarmoreelaboratethantheoriginaldesign.[Source:SebastianSmee,Artcritic,WashingtonPost,April12,2019] WolframEberhardwrotein“AHistoryofChina”:“Inpainting,Europeaninfluencesoonshowsitself.Thebest-knownexampleofthisisLangShih-ning,anItalianmissionarywhoseoriginalnamewasGiuseppeCastiglione(1688-1766);hebegantoworkinChinain1715.HelearnedtheChinesemethodofpainting,butintroducedanumberoftechnicaltricksofEuropeanpainters,whichwereadoptedingeneralpracticeinChina,especiallybytheofficialcourtpainters:thepaintingofthescholarswholivedinseclusionremaineduninfluenced.Dutchflower-paintingalsohadsomeinfluenceinChinaasearlyastheeighteenthcentury.[Source:“AHistoryofChina”byWolframEberhard,1951,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley] SchoolsofArtDuringtheQingDynasty AccordingtoColumbiaUniversity’sAsiaforEducators:“ArtduringtheQingdynastywasdominatedbythreemajorgroupsofartists.Thefirst,sometimescalled"theIndividualists,"wasagroupofmenlargelymadeupofloyaliststothefallenMingdynasty.TheIndividualistsreferredtothemselvesas"leftoversubjectsoftheMing"andpracticedaverypersonalformofartthatsoughttoexpresstheirreactiontotheManchuconquest—eitherasenseofresistance,reclusion,orsadnessoverthefalloftheMingdynasty.Theyoftenremovedthemselvesnotonlyfromgovernmentcirclesbutalsofromsociety,oftenbybecomingBuddhistmonks.TheIndividualistssoughttoexpressintheirarttheirownfeelingsregardingthefalloftheMingdynastyandtheconquestofChinabyagroupofpeoplewhomtheyregardedasbarbarians.Theseartistsfocusedparticularlyontheexpressivepotentialofpaintingandsoughtnottoemulatepastmodelssomuchastousepoetry,painting,andcalligraphyinwaysthatwouldexpresstheirfeelingsofdefianceandlossoverthefalloftheMingdynasty.[Readmoreabout"theIndividualists"atTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.][Source:AsiaforEducators,ColumbiaUniversity,MaxwellK.Hearn,Consultantlearn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu] “TheImportanceofPoetryforArtistsandConnoisseurs:Chineseliteratiartistsoftenwrotepoemsdirectlyontheirpaintings.Thispracticeemphasizedtheimportanceofbothpoetryandcalligraphytotheartofpaintingandalsohighlightedthenotionthatapaintingshouldnottrytorepresentorimitatetheexternalworld,butrathertoexpressorreflecttheinnerstateoftheartist.Theartist'spracticeofwritingpoetrydirectlyonthepaintingalsoledtothecustomoflaterappreciatorsofthework—perhapstheinitialrecipientofthepaintingoralaterowner—addingtheirownreactionstothework,oftenalsointheformofpoetry.Theseinscriptionscouldbeaddedeitherdirectlyonthesurfaceofthepainting,orsometimesonasheetofpapermountedadjacenttothepainting.Inthiswaysomehandscrollsaccommodatednumerouscolophonsbylaterownersandadmirers.ThusinChinesearttheactofownershipentailedtheresponsibilityofnotonlycaringfortheworkproperly,buttoacertainextentalsorecordingone'sresponsetoit.[ReadaboutLiGonglin,theSongdynastypainterwhogaveformtotheidealofpaintingasareflectionoftheartist'smindandanexpressionofdeeplyheldvalues,atTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.Alsolearnaboutseals,inscriptions,andcolophonsatTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sExploreandLearnwebsite,ALookatChinesePainting.]. “TheQianlongEmperorwasanavidcollectorandconnoisseurofChineseart,andthenumberofpaintingsandartifactscollectedduringhisreignwasunprecedented.ManypalacehallswereusedspecificallyfortheEmperortoadmireandstudyworksofart.TheQianlongEmperorhadatendencytoadmiretheworkshecollectedandcommissionedbyaddingagreatnumberofsealsandinscriptions—usuallyintheformofpoems—totheworks.Insodoing,theemperornotonlyendowedtheseworksofartwiththeimperialimprimaturbutalso,byleavinghismarkonsomeofthemostimportantworksofChineseart,assertedhiscontroloverChinesecultureandhislegitimacyastheultimateconnoisseurofChineseart.Oftenhemusthavehadghostwritershelpinghiminscribethesepoems,buthedidwritemanyofthemhimself.Infact,theQianlongEmperorissaidtohavecomposedsome40,000poems,andmanyofthemareinscribedontheenormouscollectionofpaintingsamassedduringhisreign.Asaresult,theQianlongEmperor'sinscriptionsandsealsappearonhundredsofthemostimportantChinesepaintingsthatexisttoday. “TheWorkofArtasaDialoguewiththePast:TheRoleofOwnersandConnoisseurs:OneofthemostextraordinarycharacteristicsofChinesepaintingisthat,inaway,apaintingisneverquitefinished.Whatdoesthismean?Justastheartiststhemselvesusedpoetryasamediumofexpressioninpainting,laterappreciatorsofapaintingfeltfreetoaddtoitbywritingapoeminresponsetothework,orsometimesjustaddingapersonalseal,directlyonthesurfaceofthepaintingortothesilkmountingborderingthepainting.Inthiswayapaintingremains"open-ended,"andviewingapaintingislikeengaginginanongoingconversation,notonlywiththeartist,butwithallthepeoplewhohaveinthepastownedtheworkandhaverecordedtheirresponsetoit.Andthroughthisvisualrecord,apainting'sprovenancecanbetraced,sothatliterallywrittenonthesurfaceofthepaintingistheveryhistoryofwhoownedit,howpeopleovertimehaveappreciatedit,andhowdifferenterassawitsmeritsinadifferentlight.Whenaconnoisseurlooksatapaintingtoday,heorshenotonlyexaminesthework,buttakesgreatdelightinseeingwhichothercollectorsownedit,andwhatsomeoftheseownersandothercommentatorshavehadtosayaboutit.” QingDynastyPainting WangShiminillustrationofaDuFupoem AccordingtotheShanghaiMuseum:“Twoprevailingtrendsrepresentedby"FourWangs"ofoldstyleand"FourMonks"offreshstyleappearedintheearlyQingdynasty.InthemiddleQing,agroupofpaintersintheYangzhouareausednovelstyletoexpresstheircharmandpersonalityandformedthe"YangzhouSchool".BythelateQing,amoregentleanddelicatestyleemerged.Atthesametime,somepainterssuchasWuChangshuoandZhaoZhiqianinitiatedaXieyistyleforflowerandbirdpainting.Afterthemid-19thcentury,manypaintersandartistsgatheredinsomecoastalcitieswithdevelopedeconomysuchasShanghaiandGuangzhouandformednewstylesorschoolssuchas"ShanghaiSchool"and"LingnanSchool",whichinfluenceChinesepaintingeventoday.[Source:ShanghaiMuseum,shanghaimuseum.net] InthemiddleoftheQingdynasty,theLoudongandYushanSchooldominatedpaintingcircleswithstylesderivedfromthe‘FourWangs’.Theirnumerousfollowersgraduallyevolvedamoreconservativestyleofpainting.TheQingdynastyrebuilttheImperialArtAcademywhichflourishedfromKangxitoQianlongreigns.LandscapepaintingsintheArtAcademyweregreatlyinfluencedbythestyleofthe‘FourWangs’.Flower-and-birdpaintingsflourisheddepictingnatureandadoptingthe‘Boneless’paintingmethodsoftheYunSchool.TheImperialArtAcademyalsorecruitedsomeWesternpaintersfortheinnerimperialcourt.TheWesternstyleofexpressionusinglightandperspectiveinfluencedAcademyartistsandproducedanewstylecombiningbothChineseandWesterntraditions.IntheYangzhouarea,agroupofscholarsindisfavormadetheirlivingaspainters.Theirworks,whichusednovelexpressivecompositionandstrongpersonality,werereferredtoasthe‘YangzhouSchool’. BythelateQingdynasty,thelandscapepaintingsoftheFourWangsandflower-and-birdpaintingsoftheYunSchoolwereindecline.Amoregentleanddelicatestyleemerged.Theincreasingstudyofstonestelesstimulatedpainterstoevolveanewpaintingstyle.WuXizai,ZhaoZhiqianandWuChangshuowererepresentativesofthispaintingstylewhichusheredinanewboldandvigorousXieyistyleofflower-and-birdpainting.Afterthemid19thcentury,ShanghaiandGuangzhouwereopenedastradingportsandsoonbecamemetropolitanandcosmopolitancitiesattractingvarietiesofpaintersandartists.Embodyingthespiritofthetimes,theworksoftheseartistscombinedWesternartisticelementswithindividualstyles.AsidefromtheArtAcademystyle,thesepaintersbecameknownasthe‘ShanghaiSchool’and‘LingnanSchool’.TheirworkshaveaninfluenceonChinesepaintingeventoday. QingDynastyArtists MaxwellK.HearnofTheMetropolitanMuseumofArtwrote:ThreeprincipalgroupsofartistswereworkingduringtheQing:thetraditionalists,whosoughttorevitalizepaintingthroughthecreativereinterpretationofpastmodels;theindividualists,whopracticedadeeplypersonalformofartthatoftencarriedastrongmessageofpoliticalprotest;andthecourtiers,theofficials,andtheprofessionalartistswhoservedattheManchucourt."[Source:MaxwellK.Hearn,DepartmentofAsianArt,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArtMetropolitanMuseumofArtmetmuseum.org\^/] DuringtheQingPeriod“ChinesecourtpaintersmasteredtherudimentsofWesternlinearperspectiveandchiaroscuromodeling,creatinganew,hybridformofpaintingthatcombinedWestern-stylerealismwithtraditionalbrushwork.ManyMingofficialsandloyalsubjectswithdrewfrompublicserviceafterthefalloftheMingdynastyandlivedinenforcedretirement,pursuingpersonalandartisticself-cultivation.WhiletheearlyManchucourtfavoredacolorfulfigurativestyle,exemplifiedbytheimposingimageofEmperorGuan,aChinesegodwhosemartialprowessbecameasymbolofManchupower,China'sscholarlyelitewasdeeplyinfluencedbythetheoriesandartofthelateMingartist,collector,andtheoristDongQichang(1555–1636).Dongandhiscircledevelopedarevolutionarytheoryofliteratipaintingbasedonastudyoftheoldmastersthatbecamethefoundationofasystematicstylisticreconstructionoflandscapepainting.Emphasizingthedistinctionbetweenartandnature,Dongmaintained:"Ifoneconsidersthewondersofnature,thenpaintingcannotrivallandscape.Butifoneconsidersthewondersofbrushwork,thenlandscapecannotequalpainting."\^/ “DuringtheearlyQingperiod,thistraditionalisttheorybecamethefoundationofaneworthodoxstyleundertheleadershipofDong'sdisciple,WangShimin(1592–1680).WangwasanaccomplishedamateurpainterwhobuiltanimportantcollectionofoldmastersbasedonDong'sadvice.ItwasthiscorpusofprimemodelsthathelpedtodefinetheorthodoxlineageofscholarpaintingforWangandhisfollowers—laterknowncollectivelyastheOrthodoxSchool.WangShiminandhisfriendWangJian(1598–1677)weretheseniormembersofthisschool,buttheywereoutshownbytheirbrilliantpupilWangHui(1632–1717).WangHuimadeithisobjectivetointegratethedescriptivelandscapestylesoftheSongdynasty(960–1279)withthecalligraphicbrushworkoftheYuandynasty(1279–1368)toachievea"greatsynthesis."WangShimin'sotherpreeminentdisciplewashisgrandson,WangYuanqi(1642–1715)—theyoungestoftheso-calledFourWangs.WangYuanqipursuedarigorouslyabstractstyleinthemannerofDongQichangthatcouldaccommodatelearnedreferencestothepastwithoutsacrificinghisownartisticidentity.TwootherimportantdisciplesofWangShiminwereWuLi(1632–1718)andYunShouping(1633–1690).\^/ RepresentingSpaceandtheExternalWorld whiterabbitmakingelixirofimmortality AccordingtoColumbiaUniversity’sAsiaforEducators:“ThepaintersoftheQingdynastywereinheritorsofatraditionthatwasalreadymorethanathousandyearsold.Bythe13thcentury,Chineseartistshadmasteredtheillusionofrecessioninspace.Butafterthistime,therepresentationofspaceandthedescriptionoftheexternalworldgraduallyceasedtobetheprincipalobjectiveofartists.Workingonaflatsurface—suchasacanvasorascroll—anartistfacesthechallengeofcreatingtheillusionofthree-dimensionalformsonatwo-dimensionalsurface.ThisisaproblemforwhichartistsbothintheEastandtheWestfoundsolutions,buttheirsolutionswereverydifferent.Europeanpaintingafterthe15thcenturytendedtotreatapaintingasthoughthecanvaswereawindowthroughwhichanillusionisticthree-dimensionalscenecouldbeviewed;Chinesepaintingcreatedtheexperienceofspacebymeansofamovingperspectivethatallowedtheviewer'seyetoexplorethepictorialspacefromashiftingvantagepoint,sothat,inthecaseofalonghandscrollsuchasthosechroniclinganemperor'sjourney,spaceisexperiencedthroughthecontinuousunrollingofthework.[Source:AsiaforEducators,ColumbiaUniversity,MaxwellK.Hearn,Consultantlearn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu] “EuropeanApproachestoRepresentingSpace:IntheWest,inGreco-RomantimesandagainintheRenaissance,artistscreatedtheillusionofspatialdepthonaflatsurfacethroughtheuseoflinearperspective,whichmeantthatimpliedparallellinesweredrawntointersectatanimaginarypointonthehorizoncalledthe"vanishingpoint,"andallformswererenderedinscaleandpositionedtocorrespondtotheseguidinglines.Asaresult,thereisakindofgeometriclogictothecompositioninWesternpainting,andtheviewingframe(whichcanbeseenallatonce,unlikeinaChinesehandscrollpainting)wasexperiencedasakindof"window"ontoanotherworld.[Seeanetchingthatuseslinearperspective,bythe18th-centuryItalianartistGiovanniBattistaPiranesi,onTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.]. “PictorialspaceinChinesepaintingisdefinedsomewhatdifferentlyfromtheforeground,middleground,andbackgroundtypicallyfoundintraditionalWesternpainting.InScrollThreeoftheKangxiInspectionTourseries,threedistinctclassificationsofpictorialspace,asdefinedbythe11th-centuryartistGuoXi,canbeseenintheartist'streatmentofthemountains:"Fromthebottomofthemountainlookinguptowardthetop,thisiscalled'highdistance'(gaoyuan).Fromthefrontofthemountainpeeringintothebackofthemountain,thisiscalled'deepdistance'(shenyuan).Fromanearbymountainlookingpastdistantmountains,thisiscalled'leveldistance'(pingyuan)."—FromGuoXiandGuoSi,Linquangaozhi(LoftyAmbitionsinForestsandStreams),inYuJianhua,ed.,Zhongguohualunleibian(CompendiumofessaysonChinesepaintings). “ChineseApproachestoRepresentingSpace:Chineseartists'approachtotheproblemofrepresentingspatialdepthonaflatsurfaceisquitedifferentfromthatoftheirWesterncounterparts.Infact,theveryformatsthatareusedinChinesepainting—particularlythelonghandscroll—haveanimpactonhowpictorialspaceitselfisconceptualizedintheChinesepaintingtradition.Imagineunrollingascrollpainting,forinstance,fromrighttoleftasonewouldinviewingaChinesepainting.Thescrollmaybeaslong60,70,oreven80feet,soitisimpossibletoseemuchmorethanasmallsectionoftheentirepaintingatonce.Andinfact,theworkwasnotmeanttobeseenallatonce.UnlikeatraditionalWesternpainting,whichiscontainedwithinadistinctframe,apaintingonalongscrollthathastobeunrolledsectionbysectionwouldnotmakesensevisuallyifitwerecomposedwithatechniquesuchaslinearperspective,whichdependsontheuseofasingle,fixedvanishingpoint.Inalongscroll,theviewercontrolstheboundariesoftheviewingframeatanysinglemoment,andthepictorialspaceunfoldsastheviewerunrollsthescroll.Inthisway,thehandscrollformatrequiresthatthepictorialspaceremainfluid.AsintraditionalWesterncompositions,thereisaforeground,amiddleground,andafardistance,buttheartistcontinuouslyshiftsthefocusofthecompositionsothattheviewer'sapparentvantagepointisconstantlychanging,enablinghimorhertoeasilynavigatethepictorialspaceunhinderedbytheconstraintsofafixedvanishingpoint.” ZhuDa(1626–1705)andZhuRuoji(1642–1707) AccordingtotheMetropolitanMuseumofArt:“TwoofthemostoutstandingartistsoftheearlyQingperiodweredescendantsoftheMingroyalhouse:ZhuDa(1626–1705)andZhuRuoji(1642–1707),bothofwhombecamebetterknownbytheirassumednames,BadaShanrenandShitao.[Source:MetropolitanMuseumofArtmetmuseum.org\^/] “AscionoftheMingimperialfamilyfromabranchenfeoffedinNanchang,JiangxiProvince,ZhuDabecamea"crazy"Buddhistmonk,shammingdeafnessandmadnessinordertoescapepersecutionafterthefalloftheMingdynasty.Lodginghisfeelingsoffrustrationandvulnerabilityinhisart,hecreatedadeeplypersonalexpressioniststylethatreflectshisambivalenceabouthislifeinhidingandhisfailuretoacknowledgehisidentityasaMingprince.\^/ “ShitaowasonlytwoyearsoldwhentheMingdynastyfell.Savedbyaloyalretainer,hewasgivensanctuaryandanonymityintheBuddhistpriesthood.Inthelate1660sand1670s,whilelivinginseclusionintemplesaroundXuancheng,AnhuiProvince,hetrainedhimselftopaint.AftermanyyearsofwanderingfromplacetoplaceinthesouthandspendingnearlythreeyearsinBeijing,ShitaomovedtothecommercialcenterofYangzhouaround1695,whereherenouncedhisstatusasaBuddhistmonkandsupportedhimselfthroughhispainting.Drawinguponhislovefornaturalsceneryandhistechnicalfacilitywithbrushandink,Shitaocreatedthemostoriginallandscapestyleoftheseventeenthcentury.\^/ QianlongEmperor'sSouthernInspectionTour Emperor'sSouthernInspectionTourScrolls TheKangxiEmperorandTheQianlongEmperoremployedsomeofChina'sbestartiststorecordtheirSouthernInspectionToursonscrolls.AccordingtoColumbiaUniversity’sAsiaforEducators:“TheQianlongEmperor'stourscrollswerebegunin1764bythecourtartistXuYang(act.ca.1750-after1776),whowasverymuchinfluencedbytheEuropeantraditionsofperspectiveandfiguralrepresentation.WangHui,whobegantheKangxiEmperor'stourscrollsin1691,wasoneoftheforemostpaintersoftheOrthodoxSchool,whosemembersdedicatedthemselvestothepreservationofChinesetraditionalculturebyreturningtothecarefulstudyofacanonofearlierChinesemasters.Thus,itisnotsurprisingtocomparethetwosetsofscrollsandfindthattheydifferradicallyintheirapproachtotherepresentationofspaceandthetreatmentoffigures.Atellingexampleisthecomparisonoftwospecificscrolls,theseventhscrollintheKangxiEmperor'stourseriesandthesixthscrollintheQianlongEmperor'stourseries,whichbothfeaturetheGrandCanalandthecityofSuzhou.[Source:AsiaforEducators,ColumbiaUniversity,MaxwellK.Hearn,Consultantlearn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu] “IntheKangxiscroll,WangHui'sfiguresarepaintedinastylized,almostcartoon-likestylethatgivesthematremendousamountofbuoyancyandexpressiveenergy.ThefiguresintheQianlongscroll,ontheotherhand,arehandledinamoreEuropeanstyleandareanatomicallymoreaccurate,buttheylookstiffandposed,asthoughtheyarefrozeninspaceandtime.XuYang'sfiguresaremorethree-dimensionalintheirrepresentation,andthereforemore"realistic"thantheircounterpartsbyWangHui,but,paradoxically,theyactuallyseemtohavelessanimationandlifethanWangHui'sfigures. “Acomparisonofthetwoartists'approachestotherepresentationofspaceinthetourscrollsrevealsthelimitationsoftranslatingtheEuropeanstyletotheChinesescrollformat.InfluencedbytheWesterntechniqueoflinearperspective,XuYangstrivesinthesixthQianlongscrolltomaintainaconsistentvantagepointinhisrepresentationsoftheGrandCanalandtherouteoftheQianlongEmperorintoSuzhou.TheCanalispresentedasthoughtheviewerwerealwayslookingfromtheeasttowardthewest.Butinordertomaintaintheconsistencyofthisviewpoint,XuYanghadtopresentTigerHill,oneofthescenichighlightsonthislegofthetourroute,fromthebackratherthanfromthefront,whichwouldhavebeenitscharacteristicandthus,morerecognizable,view.IntheseventhKangxiscroll,ontheotherhand,WangHuihadnoproblemreorientingthemountaintopresentitfromitsmorecharacteristicfrontalview,whichispreciselythewayaChinesemapmakerwouldvisualizeamountain.XuYang,intryingtomaintainaconsistentreferencepointbasedonlinearperspective,couldnotreorientthemountainsuddenlyandshowitfromtheotherside.Soagain,aswiththetreatmentoffigures,thecommitmenttopictorialrealisminfactbecamealimitationtotheartistinsignificantways.ThoughtheEuropeanstyleaddedacertainkindofillusionaryrealismtothedepictionofQianlong'ssoutherninspectiontour,itcouldbearguedthatitalsodetractedfromoneofthemostimportantfunctionsofthesescrollsashistoricaldocuments,whichwastohighlightthesignificanceoftheemperor'svisittoimportantsites(suchasTigerHillandtheGrandCanal).” QingDynastyPortraits KanxiEmperorportrait Largewall-sizeportraitsofancestorswereproducedforthearistocracyandrulingclassduringtheQingdynasty.Theyfeaturerealisticseatedrenderingsofindividualpaintedinbrightcolors.Theywereoftenplacedoverfamilyaltars. Thepaintingswereregardedasmediumsforcommunicationstodeceasedrelatives.TheChinesehavetraditionallybelievedthedeaddidn'tdietheyjustwenttoadifferentworldwheretheycouldbecontactedbytheliving.Thedeadwerebelievedtowanttohearnewsandreceiveofferingsandsacrificesfromtimetotimebylivingrelatives. TheShanghaiSchoolwasaninfluentialpaintingmovementfoundedinthemid-19thcenturythatiscreditedwithcombiningtraditionalChineseinkpaintingswithmodernisttrends.Incorporatingheavyblackstrokestooutlinefigureandbringattentiontodetails,itinfluencedJapanesewoodblockprintingandearlymangaartamongotherthings.ImportantShanghaiSchoolartistsincludedQinZuyong(1825-1884)andQianHuian(1833-1911). DescribingaworkcalledKingyo-zubytheartistnamedXuguChristophMarkwroteintheDailyYomiuri:“Lighttouchesdilutedinktocreatereflectionsonwaterasabstractgoldfishswimbeneath...Thescantuseofcolor—areddishorangeforthefish—ischaracteristicof...paintingsthatrelyheavilyoninkingskillstoconveywhatcolorwouldbeusedforinotherstyles." YangzhouArtandtheAnhuiandNanjingMasters MaxwellK.HearnofTheMetropolitanMuseumofArtwrote:“ThecityofYangzhou,locatedalongtheGrandCanalbetweentheHuaisaltfieldsandtheYangziRiver,becameaprosperouscommercialhubduringtheQingdynastythankstothesaltmonopolycenteredthere.Duringtheeighteenthcentury,thecitysurpassedevenSuzhouinthenumberofimportantartistsactivethere,astheburgeoningfortunesofsaltmerchantsandotherentrepreneurscreatedopportunitiesforartisticexperimentationaswellasconspicuousconsumption.[Source:MaxwellK.Hearn,DepartmentofAsianArt,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArtMetropolitanMuseumofArtmetmuseum.org\^/] “Yangzhou'smercantileelitesupportedadiversearrayofartistswhoworkedintwodistinctpictorialtraditions.Onegroup,exemplifiedbyYuanJiang(activeca.1690–ca.1746)andmembersofhisatelier,workedinthecourtlytradition,producinglarge-scale,richlydetailedworksinmineralpigmentsonsilkthatepitomizetheYangzhoutasteforostentatiousdisplay.Anothergroupofartists,laterknownasthe"EightEccentricsofYangzhou,"drewinspirationfromthehighlyindividualisticworksofShitao.Practicingaself-expressive,calligraphicpaintingmanner,theseartistsspecializedinfiguralsubjectsorauspiciousflowerandbirdimagesthatappealedtothetastesofabroaderpublicandwerelessdemandingaswellasmorecommerciallyviablethanlandscapepainting.\^/ AccordingtothedictatesofConfuciantradition,amanmaynotserveundertwodynasties.Asaresult,manyMingofficialsandloyalsubjectswithdrewfrompublicserviceafterthefalloftheMingdynastyandlivedinenforcedretirement,pursuingpersonalandartisticself-cultivation.EscapingthechaosoftheManchuconquest,manyoftheseartistsfoundsanctuaryoutsidetraditionalcentersofculture.Lackingaccesstoimportantcollectionsofoldmasters,theydrewinspirationfromthenaturalbeautyofthelocalscenery.OnegroupofMingloyalistslivinginAnhuiProvince,aprosperousregionknownforitsoutstandingpaperandink,sawintheruggedcliffsandcraggypinesofMountHuang(YellowMountain)aworldfreefromthetaintofManchuoccupation.InspiredbytheYuan-dynastyrecluse-painterNiZan(1306–1374),whowasknownforhisloftymoralcharacter,theseartistsemulatedNi'sminimalistcompositionsand"dry-brush"paintingstyle,featuresthatbecamehallmarksoftheso-calledAnhuiSchool. Nanjing,theMingdynasty'ssecondarycapital,remainedahavenforloyalistsduringtheearlyQing.AcenterofJesuitmissionaryactivitysincethelatesixteenthcentury—itwasoncethehomeofMatteoRicci(1552–1610)—NanjingwasalsooneofthefirstplaceswhereChinesepaintersbegantoincorporateWesternideasofshadingandperspectiveintheirdepictionsoflocalscenery.\^/ “ThemostinnovativeNanjingmasterwasGongXian(ca.1618–1689),whopracticedadenselytextured,monumentallandscapestyleinwhichhewasabletosuggestvolumeandmassbyvaryingthedensityanddarknessofhisinkdots.Thismodelingtechniqueishighlyschematic,andthereisnosinglelightsourceasinWesternpainting,butGong'sinterestintheeffectsoflightandshadeprobablyowessomethingtotheinfluenceofEuropeanengravingsandpaintings.ZhangFeng(activeca.1636–62),whosefatherdiedin1631whiledefendingtheMingagainstearlyincursionsbytheManchus,withdrewfromsocietyafterthefalloftheMingandbecameassociatedwiththeBuddhistchurch.Zhang'spaintingspresentimagesofreclusioninthepale,drystyleofNiZan.\^/ “AmongthemoreconservativemastersworkinginNanjingwereYeXin(activeca.1640–73)andFanQi(1616–after1694),bothofwhomworkedinanunusuallypreciseandrealisticstyle.Bothspecializedinsmall-scalegemlikepaintingsdepictingtheruralsceneryaroundtheirnativecity.Sensitiveandlyricalrecordersofthefamiliar,theseartistswerealsoinnovativeexperimenterswithlight,atmosphere,andcolorwhoseartreflectsacreativeresponsetoWesterninfluencesrecentlyintroducedtoChinabytheJesuits."\^/ TibetanArtintheQingCollection AccordingtotheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei:“TheearlyQingemperorswereveryknowledgeableinthewaysofruling,sotheyknewhowtousethepowerofreligiontowinoverotherpeoples.Beforethe17thcentury,TibetanBuddhismhadalreadybecomethereligionoftheManchusandwastransmittedamongMongoliantribes.TheQingcourtfurtherpromotedTibetanBuddhismand,afterthe17thcentury,madeitthemostcommonbeliefsystemamongTibetan,Mongolian,andManchutribesinordertoholdthemtogetherandkeepharmony. The“Goldenmandalainlaidwithcoralandturquoise”measures38.6x27.4centimeters.ThissplendidmandalaisstoredinarefinedleathercontainermadeintheQianlongreign(1736-1795).Insidethecontainercoverisalabelofwhitefinesilkthatrecordsinfourlanguages(Manchu,Chinese,Mongolian,andTibetan)animportanthistoricaleventoftheQingdynasty.ThemandalawasofferedtotheHsi-huangTempleandhadbeenbroughttothecourtbytheFifthDalaiLamaviaHsi-ningandInnerMongoliain1652,duringthereignoftheKangxiEmperor. Thismandala,againstthisbackdropofinteractionbetweenreligionandpolitics,thereforehasparticularsignificance.Ononehand,theQingcourtreceivedtheblessingsoftheDalaiLamafromTibet,confirmingthemutualfriendshipbetweenthesetworegions,whichalsospilledovertoMongoltribes.Ontheotherhand,theDalaiLamawasabletospreadhisYellowHatsecteastwardandpopularizeitwiththesupportoftheQingcourt,therebystabilizinghisreligiousandpoliticalstatusinTibet. “Themandala,knownasakilkhorinTibetan,isacircularsymboloftheBuddhistuniverse.Thetopofthecoverofthismandalaiscomposedofevenlycutandgradedpiecesofturquoisedividedintotiersandshapespiledandinlaid.MountSumeruappearsatthecenteroftheuniverseandissymbolicallyrepresentedherewithagreatcontinentineachofthefourdirections.Encirclingtherimarepiecesoflarge,round,colorfullyredcoral.Thewallofthemandalaisdoneinrepousselow-reliefsculptingfromthereverse,creatingdecorationoffinestalksoflotuswithBuddhisttreasures.Therimsarefinelyworkedinavarietyofmanners.Regardlessoftechniqueormaterials,thisworkrepresentsamasterpieceofcraftsmanship. EuropeanInfluencesonQing-EraChinesePainting WhiteFalconbyGiuseppeCastiglione AccordingtoColumbiaUniversity’sAsiaforEducators:“Beginninginthelate16thandearly17thcenturies,EuropeanJesuitmissionariesbegantoenterChinaandserveattheimperialcourt.Manyofthesemissionariesbroughtengravings,illustratedbooks,andpaintingswiththemanditwasthroughthesevisualmaterialsthatChinesewerefirstintroducedtoWesternlinearperspectiveandtheuseofshadingtomodelformsasiftheywereilluminatedbyasinglelightsource(called"chiaroscuro,"anItalianwordliterallymeaning"light-dark").[Seeacharcoaldrawingthatuseschiaroscuroshading,bythe15th-centuryItalianartistLeonardodaVinci,onTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt'sTimelineofArtHistory.][Source:AsiaforEducators,ColumbiaUniversity,MaxwellK.Hearn,Consultantlearn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu] “TheChinesewereimpressedwiththeEuropeans'techniquesforcreatingtheillusionofrecessiononaflatpictorialsurface.Thiswasparticularlytrueincourtcircles,whereemperorsquicklyrealizedtheextenttowhichthisnewstyleofpaintingcouldservewelltocommemorateanddocumenttheiractivitiesinawaythatwouldbeallthemorepowerfulandconvincingbecauseofitsrealism.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatevenas"realistic"paintingintheEuropeanstylewasverymuchinvogueattheQingcourt,whereitwasappreciatedforitsdocumentaryvalue,itwasneverregardedas"highart."Chinesearthadlongmovedawayfromarepresentationalstyletoonethatprivilegedthepersonalexpressionoftheindividualartistovertherepresentationofexternalappearancesofnature. OneJesuitartistinparticular,GiuseppeCastiglione(1688-1766)—whoservedunderthreeQingemperors(includingtheKangxiEmperorandhisgrandson,theQianlongEmperor)andevenhadaChinesename,LangShining—hadamajorimpactondocumentarypaintingattheQingcourt.TheQianlongEmperor'sSouthernInspectionTourscrollswerenotpaintedbyCastiglione,buttheinfluenceofhisstyleisclearlyevidentandbecomesespeciallysalientwhentheQianlongEmperor'stourscrollsarecomparedtotheKangxiEmperor'stourscrolls,whichwerepaintedabout70yearsearlier. SebastianSmeewroteintheWashingtonPost:“TheQingexcelledatassimilatingdifferentculturaltraditions,includingWestern-stylepictorialinfluences.TheQianlongEmperor,inparticular,wasfondofanattractivehybridofWesternandChinesepicture-makingknownas“scenicillusionpainting.”Alovelyexample”ofthis“isalargepaintingoftheemperor’syoung,chubby-cheekedson,thefutureJiaqingEmperor,wavingoutattheviewer,whilehismother,believedtobethethird-rankconsort,Ling,standssolicitouslybesidehim.AsinVelazquez’s“LasMeninas,”theimpliedvieweristhechild’sfather—inthiscasetheemperorhimself. “Thepaintingdoublesasaviewthroughawindow.Trompel’oeilwindowframesandtricksofperspectivemakeitseemasifmotherandchildareinaroombetweentheemperor’sown(whereweare)andascenicexteriorrepletewithbamboogrove,rocksandauspiciouspeonies.Toreinforcetheillusionandthedollhouseeffect,theentiretophalfofthepaintingisgivenovertoanemptyroomupstairs.[Source:SebastianSmee,Artcritic,WashingtonPost,April12,2019] GiuseppeCastiglione GiuseppeCastiglione(1688-1766)wasanItalianJesuitwhowentbytheChinesenameofLangShining.HecametoChinaasaCatholicmissionaryandstayedoninChina,servingascourtpainterundertheKangxi,Yongzheng,andQianlongEmperors.CastiglionearrivedinChinain1715attheageof27todomissionaryworkandwassummonedtothecourt,wherehecametoserveinthePaintingAcademy.CastiglionefusedtraditionalChinesepaintingmethodswithWesterntechniquesofperspective.HebroughttherealistictechniquesofEuropeanoilpaintingandone-pointperspectivewithhimtothecourt.Castiglioneexcelledatbird-and-flowersubjects"sketchedfromlife"andwasespeciallyrenownedforhisdepictionsofhorses.[Source: AccordingtotheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei:“GiuseppeCastiglionewasborninMilan,Italy,andstudiedpaintingsinceyouth,joiningtheJesuitsocietyinGenoaattheageof19,takingupthestudyofpaintingandarchitecture.WhentheQingcourtinChinamadearequestforaWesternpainter,wordreachedtheVaticaninRomeandCastiglionewaschosentogo.In1709hefirstwenttoLisbon,Portugal,and,afterseveralyears,finallyleftforChinain1714,arrivinginMacaoduringthefollowingyear(the54thoftheKangxiemperor'sreign).Bytheendof1715,Castiglione(andhisreputationinpainting)hadreachedBeijing,catchingtheattentionofthecourt,where,undertheChinesenameLangShining,hewasassignedasanartist.Allinall,CastiglioneservedtheQingimperialhouseholdundertheKangxi,Yongzheng,andQianlongemperorsfornearly51years.Followinghisdeathfromillnessin1766,Qianlongdecreedthat,inadditiontoCastiglione'sofficialrankas"AdministratorofImperialParks,"hebeposthumouslypromotedtoViceMinister. “OneHundredHorses”aninkandcolorsonsilkhandscroll,nearlyeightmetersinlengthandpaintedin1728,isCastiglionemostfamouswork.MarinaKochetkovawroteinDailyArtMagazine:HepainteditlargelyinaEuropeanstyle.Nevertheless,heretooCastiglionereducedthedramaticchiaroscuroshading.Thereareonlytracesofshadowunderthehoovesofthehorses.Youcanalsoseesomeofthehorsesareina‘flyinggallop’posethatwasnotconventionalinEuropeanpaintings.MostofCastiglione’sworksarepaintedintemperaonsilk,andthushehadtoadapttotheChinesestyleofworking.Paintingonsilkdoesnotallowforcorrections.Therefore,Castiglionehadtoworkouteverydetailonpaperbeforetransferringtheideatosilk.[Source:MarinaKochetkova,DailyArtMagazine,June18,2021] Castiglionedepictshorsesswayingonthegrassorfrolickingneareachother,justasinLiGonglin’spainting.Figuresareoftenshownforeshortened.AlthoughhepaintstreesinthetraditionalChinesestyle,theartistusesshading.Butthecontrastbetweenlightanddarkisminimized.”Inonescene“Youcanseethreehorseshavealreadycrossedtheriverwhileothersfollowbehindthem.Somehorsesarequenchingtheirthirstbytheriver.Morearerestingquietly,frolickingwiththeiryoungoffspring.InChineseart,horsesrepresentspeed,endurance,andvictory.Certaintreesalsosignifydifferentideas.Forexample,theoakisasymbolofmasculinestrength.YoucanseethewillowtreewhichisaBuddhistsymbolofhumility.Thepinetreesignifieslongevityandresilience.Finally,redmapleleavesalmostalwaysconveytheautumnseason.” “WhiteFalcon,aninkandcolorsonsilkhangingscroll,measuring123.8x65.3centimeters,isanotherbeautifulCastiglionework.AccordingtotheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei:HeexcelledatWesterntechniquestorendersubjects,hispaintingsfeaturingcolorwashesandtheeffectsoflightandshadows.ThisworkdepictsawhitefalconwithWesternpaintingtechniques.Theeyesandeventhewhitefeathersallemphasizetheeffectoflight.ThebackgroundofapinetreeandmountainspringwaslikelybyapainterspecializingintraditionalChinesetechniques.ThisbirdofpreywassubmittedastributebyFuhengin1751,Castiglionebeingabout62yearsoldatthetime. QingDynastyCrafts meat-shapedstonekeptinaCuriocabinet InImperialtimes,luxuryartandcraftswereindicationsofstatusandtherewasacertainhierarchyamongtheindividualcrafts.Jadecarvingsandlacquerwareweremorehighlyesteemedthanceramics.Jadewasespeciallyprizedbecauseofitsymbolicvalueandthefactitwasdifficulttocarve.MuchoftheNationalPalaceMuseuminTapei’'scollectionofcraftsbelongedtotheQingdynasty(1644-1911)court.Pei-chinYuwrotefortheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei:“TheemperorsoftheQingdynastyhadmanytreasuresintheirpossession.Someoftheseprizedpossessionswerefinelycraftedandrichlydecoratedutensilsusedforimperialcourtlife,andsomeweresimplyfortheemperor'senjoyment.AllitemsfromtheQingimperialcollection,fromrichlyenameledceramicstowatchesandsnuffbottles,representtheimperiallifestyleoftheQing.Theyarealsoanimportantsignoftheon-goingtradebetweenChinaandtheWest. TsaiMei-FenwroteintheTaiwanToday:“Buddhistimplementsrevealthecourt'sreligiousleanings,clothingandjewelryprovideaglimpseoftheofficialQinghierarchy,snuffbottlesgiveanindicationofroyalhabitsandru-yisceptersprovideanexampleoftheextravagantgift-givingwithinthecourt.ThecollectionalsoincludestributeobjectsthatrevealtheinterminglingofcharacteristicsofChinese,JapaneseandWesternart,aswellasintricatecurioboxesthatdisplaytheingenuityoftheera'scraftsmen.[Source:TsaiMei-Fen,TaiwanToday,April2009.TsaiMei-fenisacuratorattheNationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei] Amongtheitemstheemperorskeptinminiaturecuriocabinetsweresmallcombs,teacontainers,censers,incense,smallknifes,nailfiles,forks,tweezers,brushes,pens,books,inkslabs,ink,inkcases,paper,brushes,brushwashers,brush-racks,watercontainers,glueboxes,seals,sealink,andcarveddecorativepiecesmadefrombamboo,wood,enamel,bronze,porcelain,ivory,gold,silver,rock-crystalandjade.Thetinycompartments,shelves,drawersandboxeswereoftenconnectedinelaborate,crypticways. SeeSeparateArticleTREASURESOFTHECHINESEEMPEROR:IVORYCARVINGS,RHINOCEROSHORNCUPSANDCURIOCABINETSfactsanddetails.com ImageSources:Jade,PalaceMuseum,TaipeiWikimediaCommons TextSources:AsiaforEducators,ColumbiaUniversityafe.easia.columbia.edu;UniversityofWashington’sVisualSourcebookofChineseCivilization,depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/=\;NationalPalaceMuseum,Taipei\=/;LibraryofCongress;NewYorkTimes;WashingtonPost;LosAngelesTimes;ChinaNationalTouristOffice(CNTO);Xinhua;China.org;ChinaDaily;JapanNews;TimesofLondon;NationalGeographic;TheNewYorker;Time;Newsweek;Reuters;AssociatedPress;LonelyPlanetGuides;Compton’sEncyclopedia;Smithsonianmagazine;TheGuardian;YomiuriShimbun;AFP;Wikipedia;BBC.Manysourcesarecitedattheendofthefactsforwhichtheyareused. 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