Roman Britain | History, Facts, & Map | Britannica

Roman Britain, Latin Britannia, area of the island of Great Britain that was under Roman rule from the conquest of Claudius in 43 ce to the withdrawal of ... RomanBritain TableofContents RomanBritain IntroductionTheRomanconquestofBritainTheRomanmilitarysysteminBritainThewallsofHadrianandAntoniusMilitaryareasRomanarmyandfortificationsRomanroadsRomanroadsinWalesandnorthernBritainRomanroadsinsouthernBritainLifeinRomanBritainAdministrationUrbandevelopmentRurallifeReligioninRomanBritainOfficialRomanreligionImportedcultsNativecultsChristianityRomano-BritishartTheendofRomanBritain FastFacts Facts&RelatedContent Media Images More Contributors ArticleHistory Home Geography&Travel HistoricalPlaces RomanBritain historicalregion,Europe Actions Cite verifiedCite Whileeveryefforthasbeenmadetofollowcitationstylerules,theremaybesomediscrepancies. Pleaserefertotheappropriatestylemanualorothersourcesifyouhaveanyquestions. 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ExternalWebsites WorldHistoryEncyclopedia-RomanBritain HistoryWorld-HistoryofRomanBritain By TheEditorsofEncyclopaediaBritannica • EditHistory TableofContents ancientBritain Seeallmedia Date: 43-410 ...(Showmore) KeyPeople: SaintFaustusofRiez Constantine ...(Showmore) RelatedPlaces: GreatBritain ancientRome ...(Showmore) Seeallrelatedcontent→ RomanBritain,LatinBritannia,areaoftheislandofGreatBritainthatwasunderRomanrulefromtheconquestofClaudiusin43cetothewithdrawalofimperialauthoritybyHonoriusin410ce.RomanGaulTheRomanconquestofnorthernGaul(58–50bce)broughtBritainintodefinitecontactwiththeMediterranean.ItwasalreadycloselyconnectedwithGaul,and,whenRomancivilizationanditsproductsinvadedGalliaBelgica,theypassedoneasilytoBritain.BritishcoinsthenbegantobearLatinlegends,and,afterJuliusCaesar’sraidsin55and54bce,theRomansbegantoregardBritain’ssoutherntribesasvassals.However,thesetribesdonotseemtohaveregardedthemselvesassuch,andthedirectimpositionofRomanrulewasdelayed.TheemperorAugustusplannedit,butbothheandhissuccessor,Tiberius,realizedthatthegreaterneedwastoconsolidatetheexistingempireandabsorbthevastadditionsrecentlymadetoitbyPompey,Caesar,andAugustus.TheRomanconquestofBritainClaudiusPreparationsfortheRomanconquestofBritainhadbeenstartedandthencanceledbytheemperorCaligula,andtheinvasionwasfinallyundertakenbyClaudiusin43ce.Twocausescoincidedtoproducetheaction:Claudiusdesiredthepoliticalprestigeofanoutstandingconquest;andCunobelinus,apro-Romanprince(knowntoliteratureasCymbeline),hadjustbeensucceededbytwoofhissons,CaratacusandTogodumnus,whowerehostiletoRome.Cunobelinus’ssonshadexpelledVerica,aRomanclientking,andwereblamedforraidsuponGaulwhichwerethentakingplacefromacrosstheEnglishChannel.VespasianAulusPlautius,withawell-equippedarmyofabout40,000men,landedinKentandadvancedontheThames,crossingatthesiteofLondinium(London).Claudiushimselfappearedthere—theoneemperorofthe1stcenturywhocrossedtheocean—andthearmymovedthroughEssextocapturethenativecapital,Camulodunum(nowColchester).FromthebasesofLondonandColchesterthelegionsandtheirauxiliariescontinuedtheconquest.Ontheleftwing,the2ndLegion(underVespasian,afterwardemperor),subduedthesouth;inthecentre,the14thand20thLegionspacifiedtheMidlands;ontherightwing,the9thLegionadvancedthroughtheeasternpartoftheisland. BritannicaQuiz History:FactorFiction? Gethookedonhistoryasthisquizsortsoutthepast.Findoutwhoreallyinventedmovabletype,whoWinstonChurchillcalled"Mum,"andwhenthefirstsonicboomwasheard. Thisstrategywasatfirsttriumphant.ThelowlandsofBritain,withapartlyromanizedpopulationandeasyterrain,presentednoobstacle.WithinthreeorfouryearseverythingsouthoftheHumberestuaryandeastoftheRiverSevernhadbeeneitherdirectlyannexedorentrusted,asprotectorates,tonativeclientprinces.Farthernorth,eventheBrigantesintheareaofthePenninerangecameintothesphereofclientrealms.ThepeoplesofWales,notablytheSilures,offeredfiercerresistance,andtherefollowedmorethan30yearsofintermittentfighting(47–79ce).Theprecisedetailsofthestrugglearenotknown.LegionaryfortresseswereestablishedatGloucester,Wroxeter(until66ceatleast),andLincoln.LaterbasesincludedCaerleon,Chester,andYork.Themethodofconquestwastheerectionandmaintenanceofsmalldetachedfortsinstrategicpositions,eachgarrisonedby500or1,000Romanlegionariesandauxiliaries.BoudiccaBoudiccaandRomanBritainProgresswasdelayedin60–61cebyarevoltinthenominallyconqueredlowlandsledbyQueenBoudiccaoftheIceni.Boudicca’sforcesburnedColchester,St.Albans(Verulamium),andLondonanddestroyedthe9thLegion.ProvincialGovernorSuetoniusPaulinus,whohadbeencampaigninginAnglesey,returnedtocrushtherebellion,butthegovernmentwasobviouslyafraidforawhiletomoveitsgarrisonsforward.Indeed,otherneedsoftheempirecausedthewithdrawalofthe14thLegionin69ce.Butthedecade70–80cewasdecisive.Asuccessionofthreegeneralscommandedanarmywhichwasrestoredtofullstrengthbytheadditionofthe2ndLegion(LegioIIAdiutrix)andachievedthefinalsubjugationofWalesandthefirstconquestofYorkshire. 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GnaeusJuliusAgricolaThethirdandprobablytheablestofthesegenerals,GnaeusJuliusAgricola,movedin79cetotheconquestofthefarthernorth.HebuiltfortsinCumberlandandDurham,beganthenetworkofroads,helddownthenorth,andpushedonintoScotland.ThereheestablishedbetweentheriversClydeandForthatemporaryfrontierthatwasguardedbyalineofposts,themostcertainlyidentifiableofwhichwasatBarHillinDunbartonshire.HeadvancedintoCaledoniaandwonavictoryagainstthePictsatMonsGraupius,thesiteofwhichisunidentifiedbutwasnotsouthoftheapproachestothecountyofBanff.HeevendreamedofinvadingIrelandandthoughtitwouldbeaneasytask.HepreparedforitbytheconquestofsouthwesternScotlandwithfortsatLoudounHill,Ayrshire;Dalswinton,Dumfriesshire;andGlenlocharandGatehouse-of-Fleet,Kirkcudbrightshire.HispermanentoccupationofScotlandenvelopedStrathmore,thelargevalleyincentralScotlandstretchingfromsouthwesttonortheastthroughthecountiesofPerthshire,Angus,andKincardineshire.TheRomanmilitarysysteminBritainThewallsofHadrianandAntoniusHadrianHadrian'sWallBefore90cetheRomangarrisoninBritainwasreducedbythetransferofthe2ndLegiontoPannonia,acountrysouthandwestoftheDanube.AboutthistimeStrathmorewasevacuated,andthewholeofScotlandwasabandonedearlyinthe2ndcentury,probablyinconnectionwithTrajan’sconquestofDaciaincentralEurope.EarlyinHadrian’sreigntheBritonswereinrevolt,andthe9thLegionfadedfromhistory.In122HadriancametoBritain,broughtthe6thLegiontoreplacethe9th,andintroducedthefrontierpolicyofhisage.For73miles(118km),fromtheTyneestuarytotheSolwayFirth(moreexactlyfromWallsendtoBowness),hebuiltacontinuousrampartknownasHadrian’sWall.Therewereoutpostsinthewesttothenorthofitandsomedetachedforts,milecastles,andtowersguardingtheCumberlandcoastbeyonditswestend.Histitleasbuilderofthewallisprovedbybothliteratureandinscriptions.Themeaningoftheschemeisequallycertain.Itwastobeawall(comparablewiththeGreatWallofChina)markingthedefinitelimitoftheRomanworld.Hadrian'sWallHadrian'sWallTheactualdefensiveworkswereconstructedinlayers.Firstwasthestonewall—10feet(3metres)thickintheeast,6–8feet(1.8–2.4metres)thickelsewhere,andoriginally15feet(4.6metres)hightotherampartwalk.Thewallwassupplementedwithadeepditchinfront(i.e.,onthenorthwardside)andregularlyspacedmilecastlesandtowers(twotoamile)attachedtoitforpatrols,togetherwith16fortsforthefightinggarrison,allconnectedbyaroadbehindit.OnthehighmoorsbetweenChollerford,Northumberland,andGilsland,Cumberland,itstracesarestillplain,asitclimbsfromhilltohillandwindsalongprecipices.Inthewestthewallwasatfirstofturfbutwasgraduallyreplacedinstone,onthesamelineexceptfortwomilesatBirdoswaldnearGilsland.Hadrian'sWall:HousesteadsFortTothesouthofthewallwasthevallum,abroadflat-bottomedditchoutofwhichtheearthwascastuponeithersideintoregularandcontinuousmounds,100feet(30metres)apartfromcresttocrest.Itwasintendedtoserveasarearwardobstacledelimitingthemilitaryzone.WhenthereoccupationofScotlandledtothetemporarydismantlingofmilecastles,theditchwasbreachedbyhavingaseriesofcausewayslaidacrossit,at15-yard(14-metre)intervals.Itisfurtherclearthat,beforethevallumexisted,theearliestfortsassociatedwiththewalllaybehindit(i.e.,tothesouthofit),ontheStanegateRoad,atsuchpointsasCorbridge,Chesterholm(Vindolanda),HaltwhistleBum,Throp,NetherDenton,BoothbyCastleHill,OldChurchBrampton,andCarlisle.TheHadrianicschemethusreachedfinalformonlyafternumerouschangesofplan.UnderLuciusSeptimiusSeverusmanyelementsinthetowersystemweregivenup,andtheoutpostforts,hithertoexistingonlyinthewestatBewcastle,Netherby,andBirrens,wereextendedtotheeastatRisingham(Habitancum)andHighRochester,bothonDereStreet.AntoninusPiusWhetherthelandbeyondHadrian’sWallbecametemptinglypeacefulorremainedinvexingdisorder,in139Hadrian’ssuccessor,AntoninusPius,actingthroughhisgeneralLolliusUrbicus,madeachangeandwaspreparingtoadvancetothenarroweristhmusbetweentheForthandClyderivers36miles(58km)across,whichAgricolahadfortifiedbeforehim.Therein142Antoninuserectedaturfwall(theso-calledAntonineWall)frontedbyalargeditch,with16fortsattachedtoit,andarearwardconnectingroad.Inthecentralsectortheworkstillsurvives,invaryingpreservation.Occasionally,asonCroyHill(nearKilsyth)oratBonnybridge(nearFalkirk),thecompleteworks—wall,ditch,androad—canbedistinctlytraced,whilethesitesofmanyforts(somerevealedbyaerialphotography)canbeplainlyseenbypracticedeyes.AntonineWallSeveralfortshavebeenexcavated.Ineachcasethebarracksroomswereofwood,andtheheadquartersbuildings,granaries,commandant’shouseandthebathsofstone.Insizethefortsrangefromjustoveroneacretojustunderseven.Thedefensesdiffer.Balmuildy,Dunbartonshire,andCastlecary,Stirlingshire,werewalledwithstone,whereastherampartsofOldKilpatrickandBarrHill,Dunbartonshire,andofRoughCastle,Stirlingshire,wereofsod.ThewallsofMumrills,Stirlingshire,weremadeofclay.Besidesthe16fortsonthewall,therewereoutpostsatCamelon,Ardoch,Strageath,Carpow,andBerthaalongthenaturalroutewhichrunsbyStirlingandPerthtoStrathmore.OntheFirthofForth,CramondandInvereskfortsguardedtheflank,whiletheClydewaswatchedbyafortatBishoptonnearPaisleyandbyminorposts.Thenewfrontierwasreachedfromthesouthbytworoads.One,knowninmedievaltimesasDereStreet,rannorthwestfromCorbridgeonTyne(Corstopitum)throughfortsatRisingham,HighRochester,Cappuck,NewsteadnearMelrose,Inveresk,andCramondtotheeasternendoftheWall.Thesecond,startingfromCarlisle,rantoBirrensnearEcclefechan,Dumfriesshire,andthencebyTassiesholmandCrawfordinLanarkshiretoInvereskinMidlothian,withbranchestoCarzieldinthevalleyofNithsdale,Dumfriesshire,andtoCarstairsinClydesdale,Lanarkshire,andsotothewestendofthewall.AfortatLynenearPeeblessuggeststheexistenceofanintermediatelinkbetweenthem.ThereisnothingtosuggestthattheerectionofthewallofAntoninusPiusmeantthecompleteabandonmentofthewallofHadrian.Atfirstthelatterwasheldbyagarrisoninfortsonly,butlaterbothbarrierswerefullyheldtogether,andthedistrictbetweenthemwasregardedasamilitaryarea.TheAntonineWallbroughtnolongpeace.Lessthan20yearsafteritsconstruction(155–158),disorderbrokeoutinthedistrictbetweentheCheviotandDerbyshirehillsandwasrepressedwithdifficulty.About180–185the“northern”wallaccordingtoDioCassius,presumablytheAntonineWall,wasbroken,andthecivilwarwhichsoonragedinEurope(193–197)fortheimperialsuccessiongavetheCaledonianstheopportunitytoravagethenorthwhenitsgarrisonwaswithdrawntofightonthecontinent.ThelostlandwasrecoveredasfarasHadrian’sWallin197,andin209theemperorLuciusSeptimiusSeveruswithhissonCaracallaconductedapunitiveexpeditionintoCaledoniaandconsolidatedthepositiononcemore.Then,in211,thethirdyearofoperations,SeverusdiedatYork.Amidmuchthatisuncertain,thisisplain—Hadrian’sWallwassubsequentlyregardedasthesubstantivefrontier.Severus’ssuccessors,Caracalla(soleemperor212–217)andSeverusAlexander(emperor222–235),accepteditsroleasthenorthernboundaryofRomanBritain,andmanyinscriptionsrefertobuildingorrebuildingexecutedbythemforthegreaterefficiencyofthefrontierdefenses.Therewasnofurtheradvance,andfornearly200yearsHadrian’sWallmarkedthelimitofRomanpower.MilitaryareasGeographically,Britainconsistsoftwoparts:(1)thecomparativelyflatlowlandsofthesouth,east,andmidlands,suitableforagricultureandopentothecontinent,i.e.,totherestoftheRomanEmpire,and(2)theareacomprisingDevon,Cornwall,Wales,andnorthernEngland.Theselatterregionsliemore—oftenverymuchmore—than600feet(183metres)abovesealevelandarescarredwithgorgesanddeepvalleys.Theyaremountainousincharacteranddifficultforarmiestotraverse.Thelowlandswereconqueredeasilyandquickly,thoughthemidlandsweregarrisoneduntilabout79ce.Theuplandswerehardlysubduedcompletelyuntiltheendofthe2ndcentury.Theydiffer,moreover,inthecharacteroftheirRomanoccupation.Thelowlandswerethesceneofcivillife.Towns,villages,andcountryhousesweretheirprominentfeatures;troopswerehardlyseeninthemsaveinsomefortressesontheedgeofthehillsandinachainoffortsbuiltinthe4thcenturytodefendthesouthandsoutheastcoast,theso-calledSaxonShore.TheuplandsofWalesandthenorthwereanentirelydifferentmatter.TherecivillifestraggledintoGlamorganandPembrokeshireandeventouchedBrecknockshire,whileinthenorthitpenetratedasfarasCountyDurham.Thehills,however,wereoneextensivemilitaryfrontier,coveredwithfortsandthestrategicroadsthatconnectedthem.OnlythetradingsettlementsoutsidethefortsaffordedanyhintoforganizedRomancommunities.ThisgeographicaldivisionwasnotreproducedbyRomeinanyadministrativepartitionoftheprovince.Atfirstthewholewasgovernedbyoneimperiallegate(legatusAugusti)ofconsularstanding.Caracallamadeittwoprovinces,superiorandinferior,theformerincludingCaerleon,Monmouthshire,andChester,thelatterLincoln,York,andHadrian’sWall.Inthe4thcenturytherewerefourprovinces:BritanniaPrima,BritanniaSecunda,andFlaviaCaesariensis,ruledbygovernorswiththetitleofpraesides,andMaximaCaesariensis,ruledbyaconsularis(governorofconsularrank),allunderthevicariusBritanniarum(vice-governoroftheBritains).After369afifthprovincenamedValentiawasadded.Politically,itisknownthatBritanniaPrimaincludedCirencester.WithinthearmyorganizationthecommandwasdividedbetweentheduxBritanniarum,or“dukeoftheBritains,”responsibleforYorkandHadrian’sWall,whilethecomeslitorisSaxonici,or“countoftheSaxonShore,”wasresponsibleforthefleetandforcoastaldefense.InthelaterstagesofRomanrulethecomesBritanniarum,or“countoftheBritains,”commandedthefieldarmy.RomanarmyandfortificationsYork,EnglandThearmyoftheprovinceconsisted,fromthetimeofHadrianonward,ofthreelegions:the2ndatCaerleon(Isca),the6thatYork(Eburacum),andthe20thatChester(Deva),foratotalofapproximately15,000heavyinfantry.Inaddition,therewasalargebutuncertainnumberofauxiliaries,troopsofthesecondgrade,organizedasinfantry(cohortes)orcavalry(alae),each500or1,000strongandpostedincastella(orsmallforts)nearerthefrontiersthanthelegions.Thelegionaryfortresseswerelargerectangularenclosuresof50or60acressurroundedbystrongwalls.TracesofthesecanstillbeseeninthenorthandeasttownwallsofChester,attheeasternandwesternanglesofYork,andonthesouthsideofCaerleon.Theauxiliarycastellawerelikewisesquareoroblonginshapebutvariedfromthreetosixacresaccordingtothesizeoftheregimentandtheneedforstabling.Oftheseabout100areknown.Hadrian'sWall:HousesteadsFortTheinternalarrangementsfollowonegeneralplan.Whileinlaterfortsthebuildingsareallofstone,inClaudianandFlavianfortswoodisusedthroughout,andinmanyfortsaslateas160onlytheprincipalbuildingsseemtohavebeenconstructedofstone.Inthecentreofthefortwastheheadquarters(principia),arectangularstructurewithafrontentrancewhichgaveaccessfirsttoasmallcloisteredcourt,thentoacoveredhall,borderedbyarowofthree,five,orevensevenroomscontainingtheshrineforofficialworshipandthepayandrecordoffices.Closebywerethecommandant’shouse(praetorium),generallybuiltaroundacloisteredcourt,andgranaries(horrea)withbuttressesandventilatedbasements.Thesefilledthemiddlethirdofthefort.Intheothertwo-thirdswerebarracksforthesoldiers.Nospacewasallottedtoprivatereligionordomesticlife.Theshrineswhichindividualprivateworshipersmightvisit,thebathhouse,andthedwellingsorshopsofcampfollowerslayoutsidethewalls.SuchwerenearlyallRomanfortsinBritain,differinglittlefromthoseinotherprovinces.RomanroadsancientRomeTheroadsystemwaslaidouttomeetthestrategyofRomanconquest,whichwascarriedoutinstages.RomanroadsinWalesandnorthernBritainRomanBritainFortsweredottedallalongthemilitaryroadsofWalesandofnorthernBritain.FromChesteraroadranthroughnorthWalespastCaerhun(Canovium)toafortatCaernarvon(Segontium).AsimilarroadranwestwardalongthesoutherncoastfromCaerleonpastafortatCardifftoNeath(Nidum)andCarmarthen(Maridunum).Athirdroad,connectingthenorthernandsouthernroads,ranroughlyparalleltotheshoreofCardiganBay,withfortsatLlanio,Trawscoed,Pennal,andTomen-y-Mur.TheinteriorwasheldbyroadsandfortsdiscernibleatCaerGaionBalaLakeinMerioneth,CaerswsinMontgomeryshire,FordenGaernearMontgomery,Leintwardine(Bravonium)inHerefordshire,CastellCollennearLlandrindodWellsinRadnorshire,CaeGaernearLlangammarchinBrecknockshire,YGaer(Bannium)nearBrecon,andMerthyrTydfilandGellygaerinGlamorgan.(Caer,orgaer,isWelshfor“fort,”or“encampment.”)InthenorthofBritaintherewerethreeprincipalroads.OneledduenorthfromYorkpastfortsatCatterick(Cataractonium),Piercebridge,Binchester(Vinovium),Lanchester(Longovicium),Ebchester(Vindomora),andCorbridgetoHadrian’sWallandtoScotland.AbranchthroughChester-le-StreetinDurhamreachedtheTynemouthatSouthShields.Asecondroad,turningnorthwestfromCatterick,crossedthePennineswithfortsatGretaBridgeandBowes(Lavatrae)inYorkshireandatBrough-under-Stainmore(Verterae)inWestmorland,descendedtheValeofEdenwithfortsatKirkbyThoreandBroughham.ThisroadjoinedthethirdrouteatOldPenrith(Voreda)inCumberland.Thethirdroute,startingfromChesterandpassingupthewesterncoast,wasmorecomplexandexistedinduplicate,theresultperhapsoftwodifferentschemesofroadmaking.Fortsinplentycanbedetectedalongit,notablyManchester(Mamucium),Ribchester(Bremetennacum)andOverborough(Galacum).ClosertothecoastaparallelroadpassedthroughWigan(Coccium),Lancaster,Watercrook,andAmbleside(BorransField).AtAmblesideaspurledwesttoHardknott(apeakinEskdalewithremainsofaRomancampknownasHardknottCastle)totheCumberlandcoastatRavenglass(Glanoventa),Inaddition,crossroadsfromManchester,Ribchester,andOverboroughmaintainedcommunicationwithYorkshire. RomanroadsinsouthernBritainFosseWayRichborough:RomanfortTherewerefourmaingroupsofroadsradiatingfromLondonandafifthwhichranobliquely.OneroadransoutheastwardtoCanterbury(Durovernum)andtheKentishports,ofwhichRichborough(RutupiaeorPortusRitupis)wasthemostfrequented.AsecondranwestwardtoSilchester(CallevaAtrebatum)andthencebyvariousbranchestoWinchester(VentaBelgarum),Exeter,Bath,Gloucester(Glevum),andsouthernWales.Athird,knownafterwardtotheEnglishasWatlingStreet,ranbySt.AlbansandWall(Letocetum)nearLichfieldtoWroxeter(Viroconium)andChester(Deva).AfourthservedColchester(Camulodunum),theeasterncounties,Lincoln,andYork.Thefifth,knowntotheEnglishastheFosseWay,joinedLincolnandLeicesterwithCirencester(Corinium),Bath,andExeter.Besidesthesefivegroups,ausefulroad,calledbytheSaxonsAkemanStreet,gavealternativeaccessfromSt.Albans,throughAlchesternorthofOxford,toBath.AnotherroadransouthfromnearSheffield,pastDerbyandBirmingham,toGloucester(Glevum),linkingthelowerRiverSevernwiththeHumberestuary.ErmineStreetconnectedLondonwiththenorthandrantotheHumberviaGodmanchester,Ancaster(Causennae),andLincoln.TheseroadsandtheirvariousbranchesprovidedadequatecommunicationthroughoutlowlandBritain.Besidesthesedetachedfortsandtheirconnectingroads,thenorthofBritainwasdefendedbyHadrian’sWall.