Roman conquest of Britain - Wikipedia

The Roman conquest of Britain refers to the conquest of the island of Britain by occupying Roman forces. It began in earnest in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius ... RomanconquestofBritain FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch 1stcenturyADinvasionofBritainbytheRomans ThisarticleisabouttheconquestbeguninAD43.ForotherRomaninvasionsofBritain,seeCaesar'sinvasionsofBritainandCarausianRevolt. RomanconquestofBritainRomanconquestofBritain,showingthedominantlocaltribes/kingdomsconqueredineachareaDateAD43–84LocationBritannia(EnglandandWales),Caledonia(Scotland)Result RomanvictoryBelligerents RomanEmpire CelticBritonsCommandersandleaders ClaudiusAulusPlautiusGaiusSuetoniusPaulinusVespasianusGnaeusJuliusAgricola Togodumnus †Caratacus (POW)Boudica †CalgacusCasualtiesandlosses Boudicanrevolt:30,000–40,000killed(including7,000soldiers)[1] 100,000–250,000killed[2][3] vteRomaninvasionandoccupationofBritain Caesar'sinvasions(55–54BC) ConquestofBritain(43–76AD) Medway CaptureofCamulodunon Caratacus'slastbattle Anglesey Boudicanrevolt(60–61AD) DefeatofPetiliusCerealis Londinium DefeatofBoudica MonsGraupius(AD83) SiegeofBurnswark(AD140) Caledonia(AD208–210) CarausianRevolt(AD286–296) UsurpationofMagnentius(AD350–353) CarausiusII(AD354–358) GreatConspiracy(AD367–368) UsurpationofMagnusMaximus(AD383–388) Stilicho'sPictishWar(AD398) UsurpationofMarcus(AD406–407) UsurpationofGratian(AD407) UsurpationofConstantineIII(AD407–411) PartofaseriesontheMilitaryofancientRome753BC–AD476 Structuralhistory Army Unittypesandranks Decorationsandpunishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaignhistory Warsandbattles Technologicalhistory Militaryengineering Castra Siegeengines Triumphalarches Roads Politicalhistory  Strategyandtactics Infantrytactics Frontiersandfortifications Limes LimesBritannicus AntonineWall Hadrian'sWall SaxonShore LimesGermanicus AlbLimes LauterValleyLimes LowerGermanicLimes MainLimes Neckar-OdenwaldLimes UpperGermanic-RhaetianLimes WetterauLimes Danube–Iller–RhineLimes NoricanLimes ClaustraAlpiumIuliarum PannonianLimes LimesAlutanus LimesMoesiae Trajan'sWall AnastasianWall LimesSarmatiae LimesArabicus LimesTripolitanus LimesMauretaniae  AncientRomeportal• Warportalvte TheRomanconquestofBritainreferstotheconquestoftheislandofBritainbyoccupyingRomanforces.ItbeganinearnestinAD 43underEmperorClaudius,andwaslargelycompletedinthesouthernhalfofBritainby87whentheStanegatewasestablished.ConquestofthefarnorthandScotlandtooklongerwithfluctuatingsuccess. TheRomanarmywasgenerallyrecruitedinItalia,Hispania,andGaul.TocontroltheEnglishChanneltheyusedthenewlyformedfleet. TheRomansundertheirgeneralAulusPlautiusfirstforcedtheirwayinlandinseveralbattlesagainstBritishtribes,includingtheBattleoftheMedway,theBattleoftheThames,andinlateryearsCaratacus'slastbattleandtheRomanconquestofAnglesey.[4]FollowingawidespreaduprisinginAD60[5][6]inwhichBoudicasackedCamulodunum,[7]Verulamium[8]andLondinium,[8][9]theRomanssuppressedtherebellionintheDefeatofBoudica.[10][11]TheywentoneventuallytopushasfarnorthascentralCaledoniaintheBattleofMonsGraupius.[12][13]EvenafterHadrian'sWallwasestablishedastheborder,tribesinScotlandandnorthernEnglandrepeatedlyrebelledagainstRomanruleandfortscontinuedtobemaintainedacrossnorthernBritaintoprotectagainsttheseattacks.[14] Contents 1Background 2Claudianpreparations 3Crossingandlanding 4Riverbattles 5AD 44–60 6AD 60–78 7CampaignsofAgricola(AD 78–84) 7.1AgricolainCaledonia 7.2Findings 8AD 84–117 9FromAD117 103rdand4thcenturies 11Seealso 12Citations 13References 14Furtherreading Background[edit] Seealso:JuliusCaesar'sinvasionsofBritain Incommonwithotherregionsontheedgeoftheempire,BritainhadenjoyeddiplomaticandtradinglinkswiththeRomansinthecenturysinceJuliusCaesar'sexpeditionsin55and54 BC,andRomaneconomicandculturalinfluencewasasignificantpartoftheBritishlatepre-RomanIronAge,especiallyinthesouth. Between55 BCandthe40s AD,thestatusquooftribute,hostages,andclientstateswithoutdirectmilitaryoccupation,begunbyCaesar'sinvasionsofBritain,largelyremainedintact.Augustuspreparedinvasionsin34 BC,27 BCand25 BC.Thefirstandthirdwerecalledoffduetorevoltselsewhereintheempire,thesecondbecausetheBritonsseemedreadytocometoterms.[15]AccordingtoAugustus'sResGestae,twoBritishkings,DubnovellaunusandTincomarus,fledtoRomeassupplicantsduringhisreign,[16]andStrabo'sGeography,writtenduringthisperiod,saysBritainpaidmoreincustomsanddutiesthancouldberaisedbytaxationiftheislandwereconquered.[17] Bythe40s AD,thepoliticalsituationwithinBritainwasinferment.TheCatuvellaunihaddisplacedtheTrinovantesasthemostpowerfulkingdominsouth-easternBritain,takingovertheformerTrinovantiancapitalofCamulodunum(Colchester).TheAtrebatestribewhosecapitalwasatCallevaAtrebatum(Silchester)hadfriendlytradeanddiplomaticlinkswithRomeandVericawasrecognisedbyRomeastheirking,butCaratacus'CatuvellauniconqueredtheentirekingdomsometimeafterAD40andVericawasexpelledfromBritain.[18][19] CaligulamayhaveplannedacampaignagainsttheBritonsinAD40,butitsexecutionwasunclear:accordingtoSuetonius'TheTwelveCaesars,hedrewuphistroopsinbattleformationfacingtheEnglishChanneland,oncehisforceshadbecomequiteconfused,orderedthemtogatherseashells,referringtothemas"plunderfromtheoceanduetotheCapitolandthePalace".[20]Alternatively,hemayhaveactuallytoldthemtogather"huts",sincethewordmusculiwasalsosoldier'sslangforengineers'hutsandCaligulahimselfwasveryfamiliarwiththeEmpire'ssoldiers.[21]InanycasethisreadiedthetroopsandfacilitiesthatwouldmakeClaudius'invasionpossiblethreeyearslater.Forexample,CaligulabuiltalighthouseatBononia(modernBoulogne-sur-Mer),theTourD'Ordre,thatprovidedamodelfortheonebuiltsoonafteratDubris(Dover). Claudianpreparations[edit] In43,possiblybyreassemblingCaligula'stroopsfrom40,ClaudiusmountedaninvasionforceunderoverallchargeofAulusPlautius,adistinguishedsenator.[22]ApretextoftheinvasionwastoreinstateVerica,theexiledkingoftheAtrebates. ItisunclearhowmanylegionsweresentasonlytheLegioIIAugusta,commandedbyfutureemperorVespasian,wasdirectlyattestedtohavetakenpart.[23] TheIXHispana,[24]theXIVGemina(laterstyledMartiaVictrix)andtheXX(laterstyledValeriaVictrix)[25]areknowntohaveservedduringtheBoudicanRevoltof60/61,andwereprobablytheresincetheinitialinvasion,buttheRomanarmywasflexible,withcohortsandauxiliaryunitsbeingmovedaroundwhenevernecessary. Threeothermenofappropriateranktocommandlegionsareknownfromthesourcestohavebeeninvolvedintheinvasion.CassiusDiomentionsGnaeusHosidiusGeta,whoprobablyledtheIXHispana,andVespasian'sbrotherTitusFlaviusSabinustheYounger.HewrotethatSabinuswasVespasian'slieutenant,butasSabinuswastheolderbrotherandprecededVespasianintopubliclife,hecouldhardlyhavebeenamilitarytribune.EutropiusmentionsGnaeusSentiusSaturninus,althoughasaformerconsulhemayhavebeentoosenior,andperhapsaccompaniedClaudiuslater.[26] Crossingandlanding[edit] Mainarticle:SiteoftheClaudianinvasionofBritain CampaignsunderAulusPlautiusandtheBritishtribes ThemaininvasionforceunderAulusPlautiuscrossedinthreedivisions.TheportofdepartureisusuallytakentohavebeenBoulogne(Latin:Bononia),andthemainlandingatRutupiae(Richborough,ontheeastcoastofKent).Neitheroftheselocationsiscertain.Diodoesnotmentiontheportofdeparture,andalthoughSuetoniussaysthatthesecondaryforceunderClaudiussailedfromBoulogne,[27]itdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthattheentireinvasionforcedid.Richboroughhasalargenaturalharbourwhichwouldhavebeensuitable,andarchaeologyshowsRomanmilitaryoccupationatabouttherighttime.However,DiosaystheRomanssailedeasttowest,andajourneyfromBoulognetoRichboroughissouthtonorth.Somehistorians[28]suggestasailingfromBoulognetotheSolent,landinginthevicinityofNoviomagus(Chichester)orSouthampton,interritoryformerlyruledbyVerica. Riverbattles[edit] BritishresistancewasledbyTogodumnusandCaratacus,sonsofthelatekingoftheCatuvellauni,Cunobeline.AsubstantialBritishforcemettheRomansatarivercrossingthoughttobenearRochesterontheRiverMedway.TheBattleoftheMedwayragedfortwodays.GnaeusHosidiusGetawasalmostcaptured,butrecoveredandturnedthebattlesodecisivelythathewasawardedthe"Romantriumph".AtleastonedivisionofauxiliaryBataviantroopsswamacrosstheriverasaseparateforce.[29] TheBritishwerepushedbacktotheThames.TheywerepursuedbytheRomansacrosstheriver,causingsomeRomanlossesinthemarshesofEssex.WhethertheRomansmadeuseofanexistingbridgeforthispurposeorbuiltatemporaryoneisuncertain. TogodumnusdiedshortlyafterthebattleontheThames.PlautiushaltedandsentwordforClaudiustojoinhimforthefinalpush.CassiusDiopresentsthisasPlautiusneedingtheemperor'sassistancetodefeattheresurgentBritish,whoweredeterminedtoavengeTogodumnus.However,Claudiuswasnomilitaryman.ThePraetoriancohortsaccompaniedEmperorClaudiustoBritaininAD43.TheArchofClaudiusinRomesayshereceivedthesurrenderofelevenBritishkingswithnolosses,[30]andSuetonius'TheTwelveCaesarssaysthatClaudiusreceivedthesurrenderoftheBritonswithoutbattleorbloodshed.[27]ItislikelythattheCatuvellauniwerealreadyasgoodasbeaten,allowingtheemperortoappearasconqueroronthefinalmarchonCamulodunum.CassiusDiorelatesthathebroughtwarelephantsandheavyarmamentswhichwouldhaveoverawedanyremainingnativeresistance.EleventribesofSouthEastBritainsurrenderedtoClaudiusandtheRomanspreparedtomovefurtherwestandnorth.TheRomansestablishedtheirnewcapitalatCamulodunumandClaudiusreturnedtoRometocelebratehisvictory.Caratacusescapedwithhisfamily,retainers,andtreasure,tocontinuehisresistancefurtherwest. Aftertheinvasion,VericamayhavebeenrestoredaskingoftheAtrebatesalthoughbythistimehewouldhavebeenveryelderly.Inanycaseanewrulerfortheirregion,Cogidubnus,soonappearedashisheirandaskingofanumberofterritoriesfollowingthefirststageoftheconquestasarewardasaRomanally.[31] AD 44–60[edit] RomancampaignsfromAD 43to60. TheRomanEmpireinAD 54. Vespasiantookaforcewestwards,subduingtribesandcapturingoppidasettlementsashewent.TheforceproceededatleastasfarasExeter,whichbecameabasefortheRomanlegion,LegioIIAugusta,from55until75.[32]LegioIXHispanawassentnorthtowardsLincoln(Latin:LindumColonia)andby47itislikelythatanareasouthofalinefromtheHumbertotheSevernEstuarywasunderRomancontrol.ThatthislineisfollowedbytheRomanroadoftheFosseWayhasledmanyhistorianstodebatetheroute'sroleasaconvenientfrontierduringtheearlyoccupation.ItisunlikelythattheborderbetweenRomanandIronAgeBritainwasfixedwithmodernprecisionduringthisperiod. Latein47thenewgovernorofBritain,PubliusOstoriusScapula,beganacampaignagainstthetribesofmodern-dayWales,andtheCheshireGap.TheSiluresofsoutheastWalescausedconsiderableproblemstoOstoriusandfiercelydefendedtheWelshbordercountry.Caratacushimselfledthisguerillacampaignbutwasdefeatedwhenhefinallychosetoofferadecisivebattle;hefledtotheRomanclienttribeoftheBriganteswhooccupiedthePennines.TheirqueenCartimanduawasunableorunwillingtoprotecthimhowever,givenherownaccommodationwiththeRomans,andhandedhimovertotheinvaders.OstoriusdiedandwasreplacedbyAulusDidiusGalluswhobroughttheWelshbordersundercontrolbutdidnotmovefurthernorthorwest,probablybecauseClaudiuswaskeentoavoidwhatheconsideredadifficultanddrawn-outwarforlittlematerialgaininthemountainousterrainofuplandBritain.WhenNerobecameemperorin54,heseemstohavedecidedtocontinuetheinvasionandappointedQuintusVeraniusasgovernor,amanexperiencedindealingwiththetroublesomehilltribesofAnatolia.VeraniusandhissuccessorGaiusSuetoniusPaulinusmountedasuccessfulcampaignacrossNorthWales,famouslykillingmanydruidswhenheinvadedtheislandofAngleseyin60.FinaloccupationofWaleswaspostponedhoweverwhentherebellionofBoudicaforcedtheRomanstoreturntothesoutheastin60or61. AD 60–78[edit] FollowingthesuccessfulsuppressionofBoudica'suprisingin60or61,anumberofnewRomangovernorscontinuedtheconquestbyedgingnorth. TheleaderoftheBriganteswasqueenCartimandua.[33]HerhusbandwasVenutius;onespeculationisthathemighthavebeenaCarvetianandmaythereforehavebeenresponsiblefortheincorporationofCumbriaintoaBrigantianfederationwhoseterritorystraddledBritainalongtheSolway-Tyneline.CartimanduamayhaveruledtheBrigantianpeopleseastofthePennines(possiblywithacentreatStanwick),whileVenutiuswasthechiefoftheBrigantes(orCarvetii)westofthePenninesinCumbria(withapossiblecentrebasedatCliftonDykes.)[34]CartimanduawasforcedtoaskforRomanaidfollowingarebellionbyVenutiusin69.TheRomansevacuatedCartimandualeavingVenutiusinpower. Tacitussaysthatin71QuintusPetilliusCerialis(governorAD71-74)wagedasuccessfulwaragainsttheBrigantes.[35]TacituspraisesbothCerialisandhissuccessorJuliusFrontinus(governor75–78). MuchoftheconquestofthenorthmayhavebeenachievedunderthegovernorshipsofVettiusBolanus(governorAD69-71),andofCerialis.[36]Fromothersources,itseemsthatBolanushadpossiblydealtwithVenutiusandpenetratedintoScotland,andevidencefromthecarbon-datingofthegatewaytimbersoftheRomanfortatCarlisle(Luguvalium)suggestthattheywerefelledinAD72,duringthegovernorshipofCerialis.[37]LeadingotsfromDevaVictrix,theRomanfortressatChester,indicatethatconstructiontherewasprobablyunderwaybyAD74.[38]Nevertheless,GnaeusJuliusAgricolaplayedhispartinthewestascommanderofthelegionXXValeriaVictrix(71-73),whileCerialisledtheIXHispaniaintheeast.Inaddition,theLegioIIAdiutrixsailedfromChesterupriverestuariestocausesurprisetotheenemy. ThewesternthrustwasstartedfromLancaster,wherethereisevidenceofaCerialianfoundation,andfollowedthelineoftheLuneandEdenrivervalleysthroughLowBorrowBridgeandBrougham(Brocavum).OntheCumbriancoast,RavenglassandBlennerhassetwereprobablyinvolvedfromevidenceofoneoftheearliestRomanoccupationsinCumbria.BeckfootandMaryportmayalsohavefeaturedearlyon.[39]Atsomepointbetween72and73,partofCerialis'sforcemovedacrosstheStainmorePassfromCorbridgewestwardstojoinAgricola,asevidencedbycampaigncamps(whichmayhavebeenpreviouslysetupbyBolanus)atReyCross,Crackenthorpe,KirkbyThoreandPlumptonHead.Signal-orwatch-towersarealsoinevidenceacrosstheStainmorearea-MaidenCastle,BowesMoorandRoperCastle,forexample.[40]ThetwoforcesthenmovedupfromthevicinityofPenrithtoCarlisle,establishingthefortthereinAD72/73.[41] FrontinuswassentintoRomanBritainin74tosucceedCerialisasgovernor. HereturnedtotheconquestofWalesinterruptedyearsbeforeandwithsteadyandsuccessfulprogressfinallysubduedtheSiluresincirca76andotherhostiletribes,establishinganewbaseatCaerleonforLegioIIAugusta(IscaAugusta)in75andanetworkofsmallerfortsfifteentotwentykilometresapartforhisauxiliaryunits.Duringhistenure,heprobablyestablishedthefortatPumsaintinwestWales,largelytoexploitthegolddepositsatDolaucothi.Heleftthepostin78,andlaterhewasappointedwatercommissionerinRome. CampaignsofAgricola(AD 78–84)[edit] Agricola'scampaigns. Northerncampaigns. Romanmilitaryorganisationinthenorth. TheRomanEmpireinAD 96. ThenewgovernorwasAgricola,returningtoBritain,andmadefamousthroughthehighlylaudatorybiographyofhimwrittenbyhisson-in-law,Tacitus.Arrivinginmid-summerof78,AgricolacompletedtheconquestofWalesindefeatingtheOrdovices[42]whohaddestroyedacavalryalaofRomanauxiliariesstationedintheirterritory.KnowingtheterrainfromhispriormilitaryserviceinBritain,hewasabletomovequicklytosubduethem.HetheninvadedAnglesey,forcingtheinhabitantstosueforpeace.[43] ThefollowingyearhemovedagainsttheBrigantesofnorthernEnglandandtheSelgovaealongthesoutherncoastofScotland,usingoverwhelmingmilitarypowertoestablishRomancontrol.[44] AgricolainCaledonia[edit] TacitussaysthatafteracombinationofforceanddiplomacyquieteddiscontentamongtheBritonswhohadbeenconqueredpreviously,Agricolabuiltfortsintheirterritoriesin79.In80hemarchedtotheFirthofTay(somehistoriansholdthathestoppedalongtheFirthofForthinthatyear),notreturningsouthuntil81,atwhichtimeheconsolidatedhisgainsinthenewlandsthathehadconquered,andintherebelliouslandsthathehadre-conquered.[45][46]In82hesailedtoeitherKintyreortheshoresofArgyll,ortoboth.In83and84hemovednorthalongScotland'seasternandnortherncoastsusingbothlandandnavalforces,campaigningsuccessfullyagainsttheinhabitants,andwinningasignificantvictoryoverthenorthernBritishpeoplesledbyCalgacusattheBattleofMonsGraupius.ArchaeologyhasshowntheRomansbuiltmilitarycampsinthenorthalongGaskRidge,controllingtheglensthatprovidedaccesstoandfromtheScottishHighlands,andalsothroughouttheScottishLowlandsinnortheasternScotland. AgricolabuiltanetworkofmilitaryroadsandfortstosecuretheRomanoccupation.ExistingfortswerestrengthenedandnewonesplantedinnortheasternScotlandalongtheHighlandLine,consolidatingcontroloftheglensthatprovidedaccesstoandfromtheScottishHighlands.ThelineofmilitarycommunicationandsupplyalongsoutheasternScotlandandnortheasternEngland(i.e.,DereStreet)waswell-fortified.InsouthernmostCaledonia,thelandsoftheSelgovae(approximatingtomodernDumfriesshireandtheStewartryofKirkcudbright)wereheavilyplantedwithforts,notonlyestablishingeffectivecontrolthere,butalsocompletingamilitaryenclosureofsouth-centralScotland(mostoftheSouthernUplands,Teviotdale,andwesternTweeddale).[47]IncontrasttoRomanactionsagainsttheSelgovae,theterritoriesoftheNovantae,Damnonii,andVotadiniwerenotplantedwithforts,andthereisnothingtoindicatethattheRomanswereatwarwiththem.AgricolawasrecalledtoRomein84. Findings[edit] In2019,GUARDArchaeologyteamledbyIraiaArabaolazauncoveredamarchingcampdatingtothe1stcenturyAD,usedbyRomanlegionsduringtheinvasionofRomanGeneralAgricola.AccordingtoArabaolaza,thefirepitsweresplit30metresapartintotwoparallellines.Thefindingsalsoincludedclay-domedovensand26firepitsdatedtobetweenAD77and86andAD90loadedwithburnandcharcoalcontents.ArchaeologistssuggestedthatthissitehadbeenchosenasastrategiclocationfortheRomanconquestofAyrshire.[48][49][50] AD 84–117[edit] Agricola'ssuccessorsarenotnamedinanysurvivingsource,butitseemstheywereunableorunwillingtofurthersubduethefarnorth.ThefortressatInchtuthilwasdismantledbeforeitscompletionandtheotherfortificationsoftheGaskRidgeinPerthshire,erectedtoconsolidatetheRomanpresenceinScotlandintheaftermathofMonsGraupius,wereabandonedwithinthespaceofafewyears.Itisequallylikelythatthecostsofadrawn-outwaroutweighedanyeconomicorpoliticalbenefitanditwasmoreprofitabletoleavetheCaledoniansaloneandonlyunderdejuresubmission. WiththedeclineofimperialambitionsinScotland(andIreland)byAD87(thewithdrawaloftheXXlegion),consolidationbasedonthelineoftheStanegateroad(betweenCarlisleandCorbridge)wassettledupon.Carlislewastheseatofa'centurioregionarius'(or'districtcommissioner').WhentheStanegatebecamethenewfrontieritwasaugmentedbylargefortsasatVindolandaandadditionalfortsathalf-daymarchingintervalswerebuiltatNewbrough,Magnis(Carvoran)andBramptonOldChurch. TheStanegatelineismarkedinred,tothesouthofthelaterHadrian'sWall.(n.b.BrocavumisBrougham,notKirkbyThoreasgiveninthemap) Theyears87-117wereofconsolidationandonlyafewsitesnorthoftheStanegatelineweremaintained,whilethesignsarethatanorderlywithdrawaltotheSolway-Tynelinewasmade.Theredoesnotseemtohavebeenanyroutcausedasaresultofbattleswithvarioustribes.[51] ModificationstotheStanegateline,withthereductioninthesizeofthefortsandtheadditionoffortletsandwatchtowersbetweenthem,seemtohavetakenplacefromthemid-90sonwards.[52]ApartfromtheStanegateline,otherfortsexistedalongtheSolwayCoastatBeckfoot,Maryport,BurrowWalls(neartothepresenttownofWorkington)andMoresby(neartoWhitehaven).OtherfortsintheregionwerebuilttoconsolidateRomanpresence(Beckfoot,forexamplemaydatefromthelate1stcentury).AfortatTroutbeckmayhavebeenestablishedfromtheperiodofTrajan(emperor98–117)onwards.OtherfortsthatmayhavebeenestablishedduringthisperiodincludeAmbleside(Galava),positionedtotakeadvantageofship-bornesupplytothefortsoftheLakeDistrict.Fromhere,aroadwasconstructedduringtheTrajanicperiodtoHardknottRomanFort.AroadbetweenAmblesidetoOldPenrithand/orBrougham,goingoverHighStreet,mayalsodatefromthisperiod. FromAD117[edit] Furtherinformation:Hadrian'swall Furtherinformation:Antoninewall LevelsofRomanisationbyareaanddate UnderHadrian(r.117-138),RomanoccupationwaswithdrawntoadefendablefrontierintheRiverTyne-SolwayFirthfrontierareabytheconstructionofHadrian'sWallfromaround122. WhenAntoninusPiusrosetothethronehemovedquicklytoreversetheempirelimitsystemputinplacebyhispredecessor.FollowinghisdefeatoftheBrigantesin139AD,[53]QuintusLolliusUrbicus,theRomanGovernorofBritannia,[54][55][56]wasorderedbyAntoninusPiustomarchnorthofHadrian'sWalltoconquertheCaledonianLowlandswhichweresettledbytheOtadini,Selgovae,DamnoniiandtheNovantae,andtopushthefrontierfurthernorth.LolliusUrbicusmovedthreelegionsintopositioninitiallyestablishinghissupplyroutesfromCoriaandBremeniumandmovedthreelegions,theLegioIIAugustafromCaerleon,theLegioVIVictrixfromEboracum,andtheLegioXXValeriaVictrixfromDevaVictrixintothetheatrebetween139and140AD,andthereaftermovedhisarmy,aforceofatleast16,500men,[57]northofHadrian'sWall. TheSelgovae,havingsettledintheregionsofpresent-dayKirkcudbrightshireandDumfriesshireimmediatelynorthwestofHadrian'sWall,wereamongstthefirstoftheCaledoniantribestofaceLolliusUrbicus'slegionstogetherwiththeOtadini.TheRomans,whowerewellversedinwarfareonhillyterrainsincetheirfounding,movedquicklytooccupystrategicpointsandhighground,someofwhichhadalreadybeenfortifiedbytheCaledonianswithhillforts.OnesuchwasBurnswarkHillwhichwasstrategicallylocatedcommandingthewesternroutenorthfurtherintoCaledoniaandwheresignificantevidenceofthebattlehasbeenfound.[58] By142theRomanshadpacifiedtheentireareaandhadsuccessfullymovedthefrontiernorthtotheRiverClyde-RiverForthareawhentheAntonineWallwasconstructed.Aftertwodecadesthiswasabandonedin162andonlysubsequentlyre-occupiedonanoccasionalbasis.Meanwhile,theRomansretreatedtotheearlierandstrongerHadrian'sWall. Romantroops,however,penetratedfarintothenorthofmodernScotlandseveralmoretimes.Indeed,thereisagreaterdensityofRomanmarchingcampsinScotlandthananywhereelseinEuropeasaresultofatleastfourmajorattemptstosubduethearea. Mainarticle:ScotlandduringtheRomanEmpire 3rdand4thcenturies[edit] Themostnotablelaterexpeditionwasin209whentheemperorSeptimiusSeverus,claimingtobeprovokedbythebelligerenceoftheMaeataetribe,campaignedagainsttheCaledonianConfederacy,acoalitionofBrittonicPictish[59]tribesofthenorthofBritain.HeusedthethreelegionsoftheBritishgarrison(augmentedbytherecentlyformed2ndParthicalegion),9000imperialguardswithcavalrysupport,andnumerousauxiliariessuppliedfromtheseabytheBritishfleet,theRhinefleetandtwofleetstransferredfromtheDanubeforthepurpose.AccordingtoDioCassius,heinflictedgenocidaldepredationsonthenativesandincurredthelossof50,000ofhisownmentotheattritionofguerrillatacticsbeforehavingtowithdrawtoHadrian'sWall.HerepairedandreinforcedthewallwithadegreeofthoroughnessthatledmostsubsequentRomanauthorstoattributetheconstructionofthewalltohim.DuringthenegotiationstopurchasethetrucenecessarytosecuretheRomanretreattothewall,SeptimiusSeverus'swife,JuliaDomna,criticisedthesexualmoralsoftheCaledonianwomen;thewifeofArgentocoxos,aCaledonianchief,replied:"Weconsortopenlywiththebestofmenwhileyouallowyourselvestobedebauchedinprivatebytheworst".[60]ThisisthefirstrecordedutteranceconfidentlyattributabletoanativeoftheareanowknownasScotland.TheemperorSeptimiusSeverusdiedatYorkwhileplanningtorenewhostilities,andtheseplanswereabandonedbyhissonCaracalla. EmperorConstantiuscametoBritainin306,despitehispoorhealth,withanarmyaimingtoinvadenorthernBritain,aftertheprovincialdefenceshadbeenrebuiltfollowingtheCarausianRevolt.Littleisknownofhiscampaignswithscantarchaeologicalevidence,butfragmentaryhistoricalsourcessuggesthereachedthefarnorthofBritainandwonamajorbattleinearlysummerbeforereturningsouth.HissonConstantine(laterConstantinetheGreat)spentayearinnorthernBritainathisfather'sside,campaigningagainstthePictsbeyondHadrian'sWallinthesummerandautumn.[61][62] LaterexcursionsintoScotlandbytheRomansweregenerallylimitedtothescoutingexpeditionsofexploratoresinthebufferzonethatdevelopedbetweenthewalls,tradingcontacts,bribestopurchasetrucesfromthenatives,andeventuallythespreadofChristianity.ThedegreetowhichtheRomansinteractedwiththeGoidelic-speakingislandofHibernia(modernIreland)isstillunresolvedamongstarchaeologistsinIreland. Seealso[edit] Amonumenttotheconquest,inWalmer,Kent. AncientBritain Britishmilitaryhistory RomangovernorsofBritain Romanmining RomansitesinGreatBritain ItiusPortus PugnacesBritanniae Citations[edit] ^Gillespie,CaitlinC.(2018).Boudica:WarriorWomanofRomanBritain.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 9780190875589. ^Nicholas,Crane(2016).TheMakingOfTheBritishLandscape:FromtheIceAgetothePresent.ISBN 9780297857358. ^Copeland,Tim(2014).LifeinaRomanLegionaryFortress.AmberleyPublishingLimited.ISBN 9781445643939. ^Churchill,AHistoryoftheEnglish-SpeakingPeoples,p.5 ^Tacitus,Annals14.29–39,Agricola14–16 ^DioCassius,RomanHistory,62.1–12 ^Churchill,AHistoryoftheEnglish-SpeakingPeoples,p.6 ^abChurchill,AHistoryoftheEnglish-SpeakingPeoples,p.7 ^Welch,Britannia:TheRomanConquest&OccupationofBritain,1963,p.107 ^Tacitus,Annals,14.37 ^Matyszak,TheEnemiesofRome,p.189 ^Fraser,TheRomanConquestOfScotland:TheBattleOfMonsGraupiusAD84 ^Churchill,AHistoryoftheEnglish-SpeakingPeoples,p.9 ^Churchill,AHistoryoftheEnglish-SpeakingPeoples,p.10 ^DioCassius,RomanHistory49.38,53.22,53.25 ^Augustus,ResGestaeDiviAugusti32.Thenameofthesecondkingisdefaced,butTincomarusisthemostlikelyreconstruction. ^Strabo,Geography4.5 ^DioCassius,RomanHistory60:19 ^JohnCreighton(2000),CoinsandPowerinLateIronAgeBritain,CambridgeUniversityPress ^Suetonius,Caligula44–46;DioCassius,RomanHistory59.25 ^Caligula:Mad,bad,andmaybealittlemisunderstood,Telegraph ^DioCassius,RomanHistory60.19–22 ^Tacitus,Histories,3.44  ^Tacitus,Annals,14.32  ^Tacitus,Annals,14.34  ^Eutropius,AbridgementofRomanHistory7:13 ^abSuetonius,Claudius17 ^Forexample,JohnManley,AD43:aReassessment. ^"BattleofMedway–VespasianandtheRomanConquestofSouthernEngland".www.britishbattles.com. ^ArchofClaudius ^Tacitus:Agricola14 ^Suetonius,Vespasian4 ^Tacitus,Histories,3.45,Rome. ^Shotter(2004),pp.16-17. ^Tacitus&98:362harvcolnberror:notarget:CITEREFTacitus98(help),LifeofAgricola,Ch.17 ^Shotter(2000),pp.189-198. ^Shotter(2004),pp.28-35. ^Mason,DavidJ.P.(2002a)."TheFoundationoftheLegionaryFortress:TheFlaviansandImperialSymbolism".InCarrington,Peter(ed.).DevaVictrix:RomanChesterRe-assessed.Chester:ChesterArchaeologicalSociety.pp.33–52.ISBN 0-9507074-9-X.p.33 ^Caruana(1997),pp.1-168,40-51. ^Shotter(2004),pp.29-36. ^Shotter(2014),p.6 ^Tacitus:AgricolaXVIII ^Tacitus&98:363–364harvcolnberror:notarget:CITEREFTacitus98(help),LifeofAgricola,Ch.18 ^Tacitus&98:365–366harvcolnberror:notarget:CITEREFTacitus98(help),LifeofAgricola,Ch.20–21 ^Tacitus&98:364–368harvcolnberror:notarget:CITEREFTacitus98(help),LifeofAgricola,Ch.19–23. ^Tacitus&98:368–380harvcolnberror:notarget:CITEREFTacitus98(help),LifeofAgricola,Ch.24–38. ^Frere1987:88–89,Britannia ^"ArchaeologistsfindremainsoftheRomaninvasionofAyrshire".HeraldScotland.Retrieved13September2020. ^"NewevidenceuncoveredforRomanconquestofScotland".HeritageDaily-ArchaeologyNews.24May2019.Retrieved13September2020. ^"LostRomanmarchingcampshedsnewlightoninvasionofScotland".www.scotsman.com.Retrieved13September2020. ^Shotter(2004),p.56. ^Shotter(2004),p.58. ^"RomanTimeline2ndCenturyAD".unrv.com.UNRV.Retrieved1June2017. ^W.Eck,DieStatthalterdergermanischenProvinzenvom1.-3.Jahrhundert(EpigraphischeStudienBand14,Cologne/Bonn,1985,p. 168. ^HistoriaAugusta,AntoninusPius5.4. ^Freeman,Charles(1999)Egypt,Greece,andRome.OxfordUniversityPress.p.508.ISBN 0-19-872194-3. ^Hanson,WilliamS."TheRomanPresence:BriefInterludes",inEdwards,KevinJ.&Ralston,IanB.M.(Eds)(2003)ScotlandAftertheIceAge:Environment,ArchaeologyandHistory,8000BC–AD1000.Edinburgh.EdinburghUniversityPress. ^Metcalfe,Tom(13June2016)."InPhotos:1,800-Year-OldRomanBattleSite".livescience.com.LiveScience.Retrieved2June2017. ^^EncyclopaediaRomana.UniversityofChicago.accessed1March2007 ^CassiusDio,RomanHistory77.16 ^Barnes,ConstantineandEusebius,27,298;Elliott,ChristianityofConstantine,39;Odahl,77–78,309;Pohlsander,EmperorConstantine,15–16. ^Mattingly,233–34;Southern,170,341. References[edit] Frere,SheppadSunderland(1987),Britannia:AHistoryofRomanBritain(3rd,revised ed.),London:Routledge&KeganPaul,ISBN 0-7102-1215-1 Tacitus,Cornelius(1854)[98],"TheLifeofCnaeusJuliusAgricola",TheWorksofTacitus(TheOxfordTranslation,Revised),vol. II,London:HenryG.Bohn,pp. 343–389 Furtherreading[edit] TheGreatInvasion,LeonardCottrell,Coward–McCann,NewYork,1962,hardback.WaspublishedintheUKin1958. Tacitus,Histories,AnnalsandDevitaetmoribusIuliiAgricolae A.D.43,JohnManley,Tempus,2002. RomanBritain,PeterSalway,Oxford,1986 MilesRussel–RulingBritannia–HistoryToday8/2005pp5–6 FrancisPryor.2004.BritainBC.NewYork:HarperPerennial. FrancisPryor.2004.BritainAD.NewYork:HarperCollins. 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